The reproductive ecology of Leptodactylus fuscus (Anura,Leptodactylidae): new data from natural temporary ponds in the Brazilian Cerrado and a review throughout its distribution

Recent studies indicate that populations historically called Leptodactylus fuscus (Schneider, 1799) comprise at least three well‐differentiated lineages. Herein, we describe the reproductive ecology of a southeastern clade population of L. fuscus, and review the characters of the reproductive ecology for several populations of the northern and southeastern clades. Most reproductive activity occurred in December and January, which coincided with the highest rainfall period. Males had an aggregated spatial distribution in the central area of the ponds. Three courtship interactions were observed. A female was observed closing the entrance to a burrow with moist sand after oviposition. This behaviour is described for the first time in L. fuscus. The review of the reproductive biology of the northern and southeastern clades indicates a relatively high plasticity in L. fuscus. Furthermore, the results corroborate the suggestion, based on molecular data, that the northern and southeastern clades of L. fuscus represent distinct evolutionary units.     

Reproductive features of three maternal-caring species of Leptodactylus (Anura: Leptodactylidae) with a report on alloparental care in frogs

We describe aspects of the reproduction of three shoaling/maternal-caring Leptodactylus species (Leptodactylus aff. latrans, Leptodactylus podicipinus and Leptodactylus aff. leptodactyloides), pointing to the relevance of the female to tadpoles and describe a case of alloparental care in frogs. Females of the three species connected water bodies by digging channels to their tadpoles. Leptodactylus aff. latrans females often expelled predatory snakes and conspecific males that approached shoals to prey upon tadpoles. In water bodies containing predatory teleosts, tadpoles of L. aff. latrans only reached metamorphosis in the presence of guardian females. Channel digging can provide tadpoles with access to new feeding grounds and prevent predation and desiccation. We found brood mixing and alloparental care between L. aff. latrans and L. podicipinus which, as in some Teleostei, may be regarded as the result of identification mistakes.     

On the natural history of Leptodactylus syphax with comments on the evolution of reproductive features in the L. pentadactylus species group (Anura,Leptodactylidae)

We describe the reproduction of Leptodactylus syphax from Brazil and attempt to trace the evolution of reproductive traits within the L. pentadactylus species group. We quantified the proportion of eggs/embryos from fresh nests. We test whether L. labyrinthicus and L. syphax tadpoles can prey on eggs from heterospecific foam nests. Egg clutches were found outside the water at the edges of rocky/seasonal streams, usually within excavated basins. Males beat the foam with their legs moving from side to side. Clutches do not have trophic eggs, since most of their eggs develop into tadpoles. Tadpoles cling on rocks in current/shallow waters. Only L. labyrinthicus tadpoles could prey on eggs from heterospecific foam nests. If the L. pentadactylus group is monophyletic, excavated basins and foam‐beating in lateral motions may be possible synapomorphies of this group. However, large adults, carnivorous tadpoles and trophic eggs appear to be associated synapomorphies of a less inclusive group.     

Aspects of the natural history of Leptodactylus knudseni Heyer, 1972 (Anura: Leptodactylidae) in a pristine forest in Central Amazonia,Brazil, with comments on ontogenetic variation of its tadpoles

The Leptodactylus pentadactylus species group is comprised of medium to large species of Neotropical frogs. Leptodactylus knudseni, a member of this species group, has a wide distribution throughout the Amazon Basin. Herein we describe aspects of the reproductive biology of L. knudseni and provide notes about the ontogenetic variation of its tadpoles based on a population in a non-flooded forest near Manaus, Amazonian Brazil. Amplectant pairs of L. knudseni lay foam nests in excavated basins on the edge of temporary ponds located on clay soil and at least 50 m from a stream. The tadpole development happens initially in the foam nests with access to the pond after the rain flooding the basins. Studied clutches lacked trophic eggs and tadpoles did not produce foam. Ontogenetic variations in L. knudseni tadpoles are related to size, teeth formulae and body colour. The use of excavated basins for the deposition of foam nests has been reported in several species of the L. pentadactylus group. The absence of trophic eggs and production of foam by the tadpoles differ from other species of the L. pentadactylus group. The tadpole morphology is similar to that described for other species of the group.     

Reproduction,phenology and mortality sources of a species of Physalaemus (Anura: Leptodactylidae)

Physalaemus cf. fuscomaculatus is a foam-nesting frog of seasonally dry environments of south-eastern Brazil. We report on the reproduction and other natural history features of this species. Population parameters were based on trapped specimens. The advertisement call is described. The calling and spawning season is coincident with the rainy period. Calling and spawning were performed in ponds. Most of the adults were trapped in October and the juveniles during wetter months and the beginning of the dry season. At the end of the reproductive season, the median size of adults lowered. Egg clutches averaged 2350 eggs, each egg being about 1.4?mm in diameter. Males were more abundant than females in traps. Communal foam nests were frequent, involving up to 40 individual nests. Tadpoles entered the water within about 40?h. Maggots (Diptera) infested egg clutches; water bugs and mammals preyed upon adults. In this region, the dry/cold season may be so difficult for survival that early maturation at small size would be advantageous. The male-biased sample may be related to the greater motility of males. The rapid abandonment of the foam by the tadpoles and communal nesting may help to reduce predation by maggots. Skin toxins were not effective in deterring predation upon adults. The call of P. cf. fuscomaculatus differs from that of other species in the biligonigerus group and can help to define the specific status of the studied population.     

Reproductive aspects of Leptodactytus hylaedactylus (Anura: Leptodactylidae), a member of the Leptodactylus marmoratus species group,with a description of tadpoles and calls

In this paper we describe some aspects of the reproductive biology of Leptodactylus hylaedactylus from open areas of Central Amazonia, Brazil. We describe the calling site, reproductive season, daily pattern of calling activity, chamber structure, vocalizations and tadpole morphology. Males of Leptodactylus hylaedactylus called amidst grasses and bushes in open and urban areas, throughout the year, and a greater number of males were heard in the period from 16:00 to 20:00 h. The eggs are deposited in underground chambers, which are spherical or elliptical. Larval development occurs inside the chambers. Two types of vocalizations were detected, the advertisement and the territorial call. The advertisement call of the species studied herein differs from other calls described for L. hylaedactylus from other localities of Brazil, but is very similar to that described from Peru. Tadpole morphology is similar to that described from individuals in French Guiana.     

Food spectrum analysis of the Asian toad,Duttaphrynus melanostictus (Schneider, 1799) (Anura: Bufonidae), from Timor Island,Wallacea

The Asian toad, Duttaphrynus melanostictus (Schneider, 1799), is widespread throughout tropical Asia and very abundant where it occurs. It was relatively recently introduced to Timor, the second largest island in the biogeographic region called Wallacea. Timor Island shows an exceptionally high level of endemism in a wide range of faunal groups and there are concerns that D. melanostictus may have a negative impact on this diversity, including vertebrates, through direct predation. To evaluate the impact the diet of D. melanostictus might have on the local fauna, gut contents of 83 preserved toad specimens from five habitat types in Timor-Leste, a country occupying the eastern half of Timor Island, were examined. We identified 5581 prey items, comprising the following animal groups: annelids; snails and slugs; spiders and harvestmen; woodlice; millipedes and centipedes; grasshoppers, crickets and earwigs; termites; thrips and true bugs; beetles; ants; hymenopterans other than ants; true flies; butterflies; unidentified insects; and insect larvae. Small eusocial insects (ants and termites) constituted the major part of the diet (61.6% and 23.4%, respectively). No vertebrate prey was recorded. Prey item composition did not differ between habitats. The wide prey spectrum well indicates that D. melanostictus is a generalist invertebrate feeder, as other studies, from regions where this species occurs naturally, have already shown. Although the Asian toad seems to not generally prey on vertebrates, vertebrate species that are morphologically similar to invertebrates in their overall appearance may be consumed. Hence, a negative effect on some taxa (e.g. blindsnakes) may be possible. We also present some limited data on intestinal parasites occurring in D. melanostictus.     

The strangest tadpole: the oophagous,tree-hole dwelling tadpole of Rhacophorus vampyrus (Anura: Rhacophoridae) from Vietnam

The tadpole of the vampire flying frog Rhacophorus vampyrus from Vietnam is one of the strangest tadpoles known. These tadpoles develop from non-pigmented eggs suspended in a foam nest placed on the wall of a tree hole. The elongate, depressed body resembles that of some phytotelmon-breeding frogs, but the mouthparts bear little resemblance to any other tadpole: upper labium reduced to one large papilla-like structure on each side, upper jaw sheath with a few huge, widely spaced, hook-shaped serrations that face backwards into the buccal cavity, lower jaw sheath absent, sinistral spiracle visible only ventrally, and two large, forward facing, keratinized hooks accompanied laterally by two similar sized fleshy papillae on the margin of the reduced lower labium. All evidence suggests that the tadpoles are oophagous and that the mother returns to deposit trophic eggs.     

Natural history of Phyllomedusa megacephala (Miranda-Ribeiro, 1926) (Anura: Hylidae) in southeastern Brazil,with descriptions of its breeding biology and male territorial behaviour

The breeding biology and male territorial behaviour of the large-headed leaf-frog (Phyllomedusa megacephala) were studied in three temporary altitudinal streams located in the Cerrado biome of southeastern Brazil, during three consecutive years (2007–2009). Phyllomedusa megacephala showed significant sexual dimorphism, with females being bigger and heavier than males. Acoustic and physical interactions between males defending or not defending territories including amplectant and non-amplectant males, patrolling behaviour by males without established territories, and triple amplexus were observed. Neither males nor females were observed using visual cues when searching for mates. We found that males that were present at breeding sites in previous years bred more successfully and maintained territory better.     

Home ranges and aspects of the natural history of the Black-masked Finch Coryphaspiza melanotis (Gray, 1840) (Aves,Thraupidae) in central Cerrado,Brazil

ABSTRACT

In the Cerrado, native grasslands have been dramatically lost, leading to an alarming decline in populations of bird species that require these vegetation physiognomies. Species such as the Black-masked Finch Coryphaspiza melanotis (Gray, 1840) are vulnerable to extinction and remain poorly studied. The objective of this study was to examine home ranges of the Black-masked Finch at the Parque Nacional da Chapada dos Veadeiros, central Brazil. Ten males were studied in a patch of shrubby grassland (campo sujo) between February and December 2008. The mean sizes of home ranges were 4.47 ± 1.49 ha (Minimum Convex Polygon) and 3.48 ± 1.44 ha (Kernel 95%), and this varied significantly between seasons. Home ranges were significantly larger in the non-breeding dry season than during other periods, and significantly smaller in the breeding season than during other periods. Core areas (Kernel 50%) had a mean of 0.46 ± 0.26 ha. A large overlap of home ranges was observed. The home ranges of all banded males overlapped those of at least three co-specifics, and most had an area overlap of more than 50%. A nest containing an egg and a nestling was found in November. Small and largely overlapped home ranges can be considered as positive for the conservation of the Black-masked Finch. This is because both small grassland fragments and conservation units can substantially contribute to the conservation of its populations through the Cerrado extension.     

Morphology and natural history of the cryptogenic sponge associate Polydora colonia Moore, 1907 (Polychaeta: Spionidae)

The polychaete Polydora colonia is a widely distributed symbiont of sponges that has been reported as introduced into the Mediterranean Sea. Polydora colonia is re-described based on specimens associated with the sponges Microciona prolifera and Halichondria bowerbanki from New York and aspects of its reproduction and feeding biology are described for the first time. The morphology of P. colonia agrees with previous reports of this species. Females of P. colonia deposited egg capsules (14–19 eggs/capsule) in their tubes on sponges and adelphophagy was observed. Larvae appear to be competent to settle on hosts at the 13-chaetiger stage. One commensal ciliate and one parasitic copepod were found associated with P. colonia. P. colonia as an introduced species is evaluated based on current evidence. Sponge material was observed in the gut of > 50% of the worms examined but further studies are needed to evaluate whether P. colonia is selectively feeding on M. prolifera.