Phylogeny and rapid Northern and Southern Hemisphere speciation of goldfinches during the Miocene and Pliocene Epochs

Mitochondrial cytochrome b (cyt b) from 25 out of 31 extant goldfinches, siskins, greenfinches and redpolls (genus Carduelis) has been sequenced from living samples taken around the world, specimens have also been photographed. Phylogenetic analysis consistently gave the same groups of birds, and this grouping was generally related to geographical proximity. It has been supposed that Pleistocene glaciations played a crucial role in the origin of extant diversity and distribution of Northern Hemisphere vertebrates. Molecular comparison of most extant songbird species belonging to the genus Carduelis does not support this assertion. The fossil record of chicken and pheasant divergence time has been used to calibrate the molecular clock; cyt b DNA dendrograms suggest that speciation in Carduelinae birds occurred during the Miocene and Pliocene Epochs (9 – 2 million years ago) in both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. Only about 4% average amount of nucleotide substitution per lineage is found between the most distant Carduelis species; this suggests a remarkably rapid radiation when compared with the radiation of other passerine songbird genera. In addition, a continuum of small songbird speciation may be found during the Miocene Epoch in parallel with speciation of other orders (i.e. Galliformes, chicken/pheasant). Pleistocene glaciations may have been important in subspeciation (i.e. Eastern European grey-headed goldfinches/Western European black-headed goldfinches) and also in ice-induced vicariance (isolation) (i.e. siskin in Western Europe vs. siskin in Far East Asia) around the world. European isolated Serinus citrinella (citril finch) is not a canary, but a true goldfinch. South American siskins have quickly radiated in the last 4 million years coinciding with the emergence of the Isthmus of Panama; probably, a North American siskin related to C. notata invaded a suitable and varied biotope (the South American island) for Carduelis birds. North American goldfinches may be renamed as siskins, because they have a distant genetic relationship with European goldfinches. Genus Acanthis could be dropped, and thus redpolls should be separated from twite and linnet, the latter (Europeans) probably being related to American goldfinches. Also, reproductive barriers are observed between closely related species and not between other more distant ones. Finally, a tentative classification for genus Carduelis species is suggested. Received 6 March 1998; received after revision 3 July 1998; accepted 7 July 1998     

Mitochondrial DNA variation in social wasps (Hymenoptera, Vespidae)

Patterns of restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLP) of European Vespinae were more similar within genera than between them. Distance trees were constructed that support the hypothesis of monophyly of the genera Vespula and Dolichovespula. Within the genus Vespula, V. germanica was more closely related to V. rufa than to V. vulgaris. The position of the genus Vespa remained uncertain due to the precision limits of the RFLP technique.     

Both morphological and molecular characters support speciation of South American siskins by sexual selection

South American siskin radiation was studied by both mitochondrial cytochrome b (mt cyt b) DNA sequencing and homologous phenotypic characters; the latter were coded separately according to sex. Mixed phenetic and molecular (total evidence) dendrograms were constructed and the corresponding analyses suggest that speciation started in the South American siskin group with a north to south separation (Carduelis notata/C. barbata) along the Andean spine. A second split may have taken place around the Peruvian Andean mountains, corresponding to the present distribution pattern of C. olivacea. The most recent speciation events seem to have occurred in three sister species pairs: (i) C. xanthogastra/C. atrata, (ii) C. magellanica/C. yarrellii, (iii) C. cucullata/C. crassirostris. Accumulation of consistent characters in both morphological and molecular data at the basal nodes of the dendrograms indicate that speciation events occurred within a short period of time. Our data also suggest that speciation probably occurred by sexual selection through female mating choice in this radiation. Additionally, studies of variable amino acid residues in the mt cyt b molecule show that the three variable amino acids found are placed in the mitochondrial transmembrane region, which is also part of the hypervariable region in mammals. Each of the three amino acid changes occur in each of the three postulated evolutionary groups. Received 11 September 2001; received after revision 12 October 2001; accepted 15 October 2001     

Soziale Verhaltensweisen bei hörenden und gehörlosen Dompfaffen (Pyrrhula pyrrhula L.)

Summary The behaviour of bullfinches (Pyrrhula) after removal of the cochlea is studied. The influence of acoustical and optical stimuli upon the social contacts is compared. Parts of the social behaviour are controlled mainly acoustically, e.g. the attraction of a single bird by a calling fellow. Also the final raising of young birds is not possible without acoustical contacts between parents and offspring. The formation of pairs, however, nest-building, laying of fertilized eggs, and breeding are performed normally by birds without hearing. Also the social order within a group of bullfinches regulates itself without acoustical perception by its members. The alarming behaviour seems to be transferred within a group by optical signals.     

The variability of patterns of sexual dimorphism in the hominoid skull

Univariate and multivariate statistical analyses are applied to a number of cranial dimensions and angles from living hominoids in order to investigate the patterns of sexual dimorphism in these groups. Clear differences in patterns of cranial sexual dimorphisms are demonstrated not only between genera but also within a single species (Homo). These differences overlay the common finding of a sexual size difference in all groups. The results imply that caution is required in using the sexual dimorphisms of living hominoids as models for those anticipated in fossils.     

The variability of patterns of sexual dimorphism in the hominoid skull

Summary Univariate and multivariate statistical analyses are applied to a number of cranial dimensions and angles from living hominoids in order to investigate the patterns of sexual dimorphism in these groups. Clear differences in patterns of cranial sexual dimorphisms are demonstrated not only between genera but also within a single species (Homo). These differences overlay the common finding of a sexual size difference in all groups. The results imply that caution is required in using the sexual dimorphisms of living hominoids as models for those anticipated in fossils.     

Histochemical localization of acetylcholinesterase in the glycogen body (sinus rhomboidalis) of common brown dove,Streptopelia senegalensis and house sparrow,Passer domesticus

Summary Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity was studied in the glycogen bodies of the spinal cords of 2 birds namelyStreptopelia senegalensis andPasser domesticus. A possible functional significance of AChE in the light of relative enzymatic localization especially in Hoffmann-Kolliker nuclei (motor cell groups), substantia gelatinosa and other regions of gray matter of 2 avian glycogen bodies has been discussed.     

Karyology of the primitive salamanders, family Hynobiidae

Karyotypes have been studied in 3 species of Hynobius and in 1 species each of the remaining genera of Hynobiids (Ranodon, Batrachuperus, Salamandrella and Onychodactylus). All species have large diploid numbers, between 56 and 66, and asymmetrical and bimodal karyotypes. DNA contents (2C) were found to vary between 33 and 51 pg. Determination was not possible in Onychodactylus where higher values may be suspected. Some of the karyotypes investigated are similar to those of Cryptobranchids. Phylogenetic implications are discussed.     

Atoms, complexes, and demonstration: Posterior analytics 96b15-25

There is agreement neither concerning the point that is being made in Posterior analytics 96b15–25 nor the issue Aristotle intends to address. There are two major lines of interpretation of this passage. According to one, sketched by Themistius and developed by Philoponus and Eustratius, Aristotle is primarily concerned with determining the definitions of the infimae species that fall under a certain genus. They understand Aristotle as arguing that this requires collating definitional predictions, seeing which are common to which species. Pacius, on the other hand, takes Aristotle to be saying that a genus is studied scientifically through first determining the infimae species that fall under that genus. This interpretation attributes to Aristotle a distinction between primary and derivative subjects. I argue for Pacius’s interpretation, defending it against Barnes’s objections.     

Acoustic differences between populations of western and eastern Bonelli's Warblers (Phylloscopus bonelli,Sylviidae)

Summary Sonographic analyses of songs and calls of Bonelli's Warbler (Phylloscopus bonelli) show important structural differences between the geographically isolated western (P.b. bonelli) and eastern (P.b. orientalis) populations. Playback experiments in the field and some morphological differences suggest that these populations may be separating into 2 species.Supported by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (H.-H.B. and J.M.).The authors wish to thank Dr D. Graham for his help in the translation.     

Classification and distribution ofFicus

Summary The classification of the genusFicus has changed considerably in the course of time and is still the subject of further research and discussion. The main subdivisions in the most recent classification by Corner¹² are presented together with the genera of pollinating fig wasps (Agaonidae) associated with them. These subdivisions are discussed and grouped according to morphological and functional traits, in particular in connection with the unique pollination system. Two main groups are recognized: one with only monoecious species and the other with predominantly (gyno)dioecious species. The former comprises two subgroups (Pharmacosycea andUrostigma) and the latter three, more profoundly different subgroups (Ficus, Sycidium andSycomorus). The neotropical representatives of the genus are discussed in somewhat more detail. In addition, the distribution of the genus is summarized for the three main regions of distribution; Africa, America, and Asia-Australasia. Finally the concordance between subdivisions ofFicus and those of the Agaonidae is briefly discussed.     

Karyology of the primitive slamanders,family hynobiidae

Summary Karyotypes have been studied in 3 species ofHynobius and in 1 species each of the remaining genera of Hynobiids (Ranodon, Batrachuperus, Salamandrella andOnychodactylus). All species have large diploid numbers, between 56 and 66, and asymmetrical and bimodal karyotypes. DNA contents (2C) were found to vary between 33 and 51 pg. Determination was not possible inOnychodactylus where higher values may be suspected. Some of the karyotypes investigated are similar to those of Cryptobranchids. Phylogenetic implications are discussed.Research supported by a grant from the Ministero della Pubblica Istruzione.     

海洋弧菌多样性

海洋弧菌泛指异营性、好盐性、兼性嫌气性革兰氏阴性杆菌中，具有发酵葡萄糖等醣类能力者。它们遍布于内湾、沿岸和大洋水域及海底沉积物，也遍布于形形色色海洋生物体表和体内。这类细菌中，有少数种类是海洋鱼类和无脊椎动物特化发光器官内共生者，另有许多其它种类是人类和海洋动物病原体。海洋弧茵具有各类物质分解能力，包括能降解几丁质、洋菜等复杂多醣类，因而可能在沿岸环境有机物质循环再生中，扮演重要角色。这类细菌的固氮作用，可能是海洋环境中氨态氮重要来源之一。16S rDNA序列之亲源分析显示，海洋弧菌隶属γ-Proteobacteria。七十多种海洋弧菌目前被归类于Enreovibrio、Grimontia、Photobacterium、Salinovibrio和Vibrio五属；前两属属于Enterovibrionaceae，后三属分别属于Photobacteriaceae、Salinovibrionaceae和Vibrionaceae。利用限制型分析于区分16S rDNA基因型，是一种简易快速，而又有效于遂行海洋弧菌分离株初步分类的方法。     

熊野藻属Kumanoa系统分类研究进展

熊野藻属(Kumanoa)是淡水红藻中基于rbcL和SSU基因序列建立的一个属,并进一步得到了cox1和UPA序列结果的支持,隶属于串珠藻目(Batrachospermales)。本文综述了熊野藻属系统分类及我国该属植物研究的研究进展,对其主要形态特征进行了界定。该属植物与串珠藻属植物形态结构相似,但果孢子体通常半球形,位于轮节中央,受精丝长度有限,果胞枝弯曲、扭曲或螺旋状,其细胞形状明显区别于营养细胞。分子数据显示其单独聚为一支,明显区别于串珠藻属的类群。中国淡水熊野藻属已记录的种类有10种。利用分子生物学手段对我国淡水熊野藻属进行深入系统的、多特征的分类研究是今后该属植物的主要研究方向。     

Significant differential gene duplication without ancestral tetraploidy in a genus of mexican fish

Summary A comparison of the protein products of 20–25 structural gene loci among the known species of the goodeid fish genusSkiffia suggests that at least 4 loci (16–20%) have undergone species-specific duplications (or, in 1 case, apparent loss) during the evolution of the genus. The species are clearly diploids, and the data therefore indicate that even a large proportion of differentially duplicated loci within a group of related fish species is not critical evidence of common tetraploid ancestry. Differential duplication of structural gene loci may be an important component of the genetic differences that separate congeneric conventional diploid species.Supported by NSF grants DEB76-20958 (BJT), DEB77-03257 (EMR) and DEB77-17315 (RRM).     

Multiple prismatic calcium phosphate layers in the jaws of present-day sharks (Chondrichthyes; Selachii)

Jaws of large individuals, over 2 m in total length, of the shark species Carcharodon carcharias (great white shark) and Isurus oxyrinchus (mako shark) of the family Lamnidae, and Galeocerdo cuvieri (tiger shark) and Carcharhinus leucas (bull shark) of the family Carcharhinidae were found to have multiple, up to five, layers of prismatic calcium phosphate surrounding the cartilages. Smaller individuals of these species and other known species of living chondrichthyans have only one layer of prismatic calcium phosphate surrounding the cartilages, as also do most species of fossil chondrichthyans. Two exceptions are the fossil shark genera Xenacanthus and Tamiobatis. Where it is found in living forms, this multiple layered calcification does not appear to be phylogenetic, as it appears to be lacking in other lamnid and carcharhinid genera and species. Rather it appears to be functional, only appearing in larger individuals and species of these two groups, and hence may be necessary to strengthen the jaw cartilages of such individuals for biting.     

Effect of colchicine on polymerization of tubulin from rats, mice, hamsters and guinea-pigs.

Colchicine-inhibition of polymerization of tulbulin from rats, mice, golden hamsters and guinea-pigs was studied to determine if species differences in tubulin sensitivity to colchicine might parallel species variation in colchicine toxicity. It was found that polymerization of tubulin is nearly equally sensitive to colchicine in all four species.     

Chemical subdivisions within the genusArctostaphylos based on flavanoid profiles

Summary The flavonoid glycosides from 227 populations representing 20 species ofArctostaphylos have been identified. Certain glycosides are of values in subdividing the genus into discreet chemically related groups. A single linkage computer analysis shows the existance of subdivisions based both on oxidation levels of the flavonoids as well as glycoside variation. The ability to form 7-O-glycosides appears to be restricted and could be of future value in the identification of hybrids between those taxa capable of 7-O-glycoside synthesis and those unable to do so.Supported by the National Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada.     

Evolution chromosomique chez genre Sorex: nouvelle information

Summary InSorex unguiculatus, a species closely related to the common shrew, 41 chromosomes were observed in the spermatogonia of two male specimens. The meiotic cells show about 21 formations at diakinesis and first maturation division metaphase. The mode of sex determination still remains unsatisfactorily clarified. However, the species investigated is of interest as a further instance of the very complex chromosomal evolution characterizing the genus Sorex. Within this genus, the observed variation in chromosome numbers now ranges from 21 to 41 at the diploid level.