Dilemmas of Confrontation

Practicing action research in workplaces is a choice of letting oneself be closely involved in other peoples’ integrity as working men and women. The encounter between the researcher and the social group in the contract organization is the vital and sometimes only instrument for generating new learning and lasting change, thus it is critical for engaged action researchers to continuously be self-reflective on our praxis and appearance in this encounter. Within the action research literature, this encounter is discussed in relatively broad terms emphasizing preferred roles, values and strategies for organizing collaborative learning processes. Relatively little is reported, however, on the unpleasant sides of this interaction between the researcher and the collaborative group. In line with Greenwood and Levin’s (1998) argument for the action researcher as a friendly outsider who confronts in a supportive way, most researchers practicing action research have experienced how difficult it is to be as confronting as it takes if dysfunctional social routines are to be changed. In this article, I report on my own practice from an action research project, where I gradually developed my skills and confidence in acting more confronting as to bring forward new collaborating working routines among metal workers. I discuss three different forms of confrontation to be of critical necessity. By daring to act more confrontational, I also realized that it made me feel better about myself as a professional engaged researcher as I could reveal my true meanings and perspectives to the workers. I conclude by suggesting that in order for an engaged researcher to be able to develop her role as a confronting practitioner it is important to work closely in a team with fellow researchers, as well as to have the personal capacity to be self-reflexive and self-therapeutic.     

The Engaged Researcher–From Translator to Literary Change Agent

In this article we reflect upon an integrated approach to action research. The role of the engaged researcher is empirically addressed by using longitudinal field experiences. We take a narrative approach and tell three stories from the field. In analysing the stories we propose a transition of the role of the engaged researcher, from that of a translator of general theory and contextual practices to one of a literary change agent. The literary change agent inspires practitioners by means as concepts, metaphors and storytelling. We suggest that the narrative approach can bring a new and critical flavour to the previously under-explored area of the role of the researcher in action research.

Formalised and Non-Formalised Methods in Resource Management—Knowledge and Social Learning in Participatory Processes: An Introduction

The participation of non-state actors in public decision-making and transdisciplinary research is increasingly regarded as an effective means to cope with growing uncertainties and complexities in human–nature interactions. The management of natural resources is expected to profit from a broader knowledge base and processes of social learning, thus allowing for potentially more informed and creative decision-making. Communication is a key element of transmitting knowledge and fostering social learning. This article introduces the special issue, which assembles contributions that discuss different methods, instruments, tools, and models that have been developed in order to facilitate the transmission of information as well its selection and aggregation. Each of the contributions is briefly reviewed. The approaches discussed here and in the individual papers aim to foster learning in participatory processes. We argue that a key aspect is the degree to which methods are formalised. Formalisation refers to the extent to which information is channelled in a certain way, leaving more or less scope for open communication. Depending on the goals and context, more or less formalised methods can be employed. We conclude by highlighting the context-dependency of participatory processes in natural resource management and indicate some directions for future research.

The Role Conundrums of Co-Inquiry Action Research: Lessons from the Field

This paper focuses on the role conundrums that confront action researchers who are engaged in co-inquiry designs for purposes of generating knowledge that is both actionable and makes a robust contribution to a more generalized body of knowledge. Drawing on the lived experience of researchers in such a project in U.S. Department of Veteran Affairs, this paper describes the conundrums that confronted the researchers, identifies the central dynamics around which they seem to be organized, and discusses the impact on the subsequent practice of the researchers. Practices that establish reflexivity in the research process are an important part of the role of the researchers. So too is establishing relationships that provide for sensemaking and integrating rigor and relevance.

Communicating Through Theatre: How Organizational Theatre Engages Researchers and Industrial Companies

In this article, we focus on the communicative aspects in action research (AR), and how we as action researchers have been inspired by working with a theatre company in enterprise development. The theatre showed us a different landscape concerning communication in the enterprise development process. We discuss how communication in AR traditionally is handled, and challenge AR by introducing how a theatre company creates engagement and involvement in the development process. Action researchers can enhance their research activity through using communication forms borrowed from theatrical performance in order to inspire and increase participants’ involvement in change processes.

Action Engagement: Improving Researchers’ Involvement in Action Research Projects

This article presents a theoretical and empirical analysis of Action Engagement. This is a methodological approach implying that researchers involve themselves in the organization by working as ordinary employees. Our problem statement is this: How will Action Engagement improve the quality of action research? Given the fact that the researcher has limited time to use in the initial phase, we intend to show that Action Engagement is an effective introduction to the daily organizational life. The data is from an automotive supplier and two hospitals in Norway. The analysis contributes to the field of action research in two respects. First, it offers a detailed and varied understanding of how a broad empirical basis can be obtained in an action research (AR) project. Second, it presents an empirically grounded understanding of how this method can be used to achieve increased credibility and trust in ways that enable the researcher to bring in new and important aspects in organizational dialogues.     

Overcoming Challenges in Writing About Action Research—The Promise of the Development Story

There is great demand for articles and books describing what action researchers do but little methodological literature available explaining how researchers can go about writing such articles and books. This constitutes a serious challenge as writing high quality scientific texts is crucial for researchers to learn about and improve their practice. This paper addresses that challenge and offers a ‘recipe’ for writing, the development story, which aims to help action researchers reflect deeply on their empirical observations and convert these into concise and meaningful texts. The main purpose is to examine how using the development story as a support tool for writing impacts on engaged researchers’ field practice. We assess the value of the development story by using it to analyse and present an organizational development project in four Norwegian industrial service firms. We conclude that the development story can help instigating valuable reflection on the various roles researchers play out in the field, thereby helping them improve future practice. There is a need for more literature about analysis and writing adapted to the specific challenges of action research.     

Constructive Scaffolding or a Procrustean Bed? Exploring the Influence of a Facilitated,Structured Group Process in a Climate Action Group

In this paper we present a case of a structured, facilitated group process with a climate action group engaged in a local Transition initiative. We explore how the interacting contexts between action researchers and the group acted as a constraint for the trajectory of the group process, by looking at the mismatches between the group’s and the researchers’ purposes and differences in expectations about methods of engagement. A methodological framework was used for evaluating the outcomes. The primary aim of this article was to investigate and point out dynamics that may be a hindrance to the effectiveness of a facilitated local climate initiative, with the view to inform facilitation practices and improve future action research processes.     

The Researcher as Change Agent

This paper examines the challenges facing researchers working on projects with industry. There has been considerable previous investigation into the need for academic research to have more impact, particularly for industry. Community action research (CAR) examines how practitioners, consultants, and researchers can work together to create new knowledge. However, research has shown that CAR is difficult due to fragmentation within the knowledge creating system. This paper examines how fragmentation can occur from the experience of a researcher working on a large-scale longitudinal change project over three and a half years. The results identify ten lessons learned and five recommendations for improving the capacity of researchers to have impact as change agents within a CAR group.     

Self-Reflection and Vulnerability in Action Research: Bringing Forth New Worlds in Our Learning

This paper looks at experiences in using action research in a self-reflective fashion. It addresses some of the problems which the action researcher has in coping with ourselves in our research. Mendes (1996) quotes Maturana: Everything is fundamental in our being alive and therefore, if we want to explain human experience we need to understand how being alive together generates our existence.² Although I would add that the social view of existence can be complemented by the view that our personal existence comes forth from a deeper domain, this statement is my starting point. Working from a anecdote which demonstrates the critical importance of individual perception in labeling any issue as a mess, I discuss the importance of self-reflection in the research process and the importance to us as researchers in recognizing our own vulnerability in the research context. Finally, I describe some positive outcomes or prizes of recognizing our vulnerability in research processes and using this vulnerability as a spur to improving our research.     

‘Who’s in the Network?’ When Stakeholders Influence Data Analysis

Environmental applications of social network analysis (SNA) are just beginning to emerge, and so far have focussed on understanding the characteristics of social networks that increase the likelihood of collective action and successful natural resource management. We move beyond this discussion to demonstrate how knowledge gained from analysing the social networks of stakeholders can be harnessed for selecting stakeholders, and further, how these analyses can be influenced by the expressed wishes and concerns of stakeholders. Although we began our SNA using concepts derived from the resource-management literature, stakeholder involvement in the interpretation of the results led to the use of SNA techniques that had not previously been applied in the context of resource management. We thus re-analysed our data and modified our selection of research participants. Re-analysis led to the selection of research participants who (1) had unique positions in the network, thus occupying non-redundant communication roles in the network, (2) came from different stakeholder categories and (3) were relatively well-connected to others and tended to broker across different segments of the network. By combining insights from researchers and stakeholders in this way, it was possible to use SNA in an innovative and sensitive way to better meet the needs of the stakeholders and the research project.

The Participation Imperative in Co-operative Inquiry: Personal Reflections of an Initiating Researcher

Participation has become an imperative in international development. In particular, participatory approaches to development research are believed to support empowerment through collective development of knowledge and action. Yet there are broad interpretations of participation, ranging from passive participation and information exchange to empowered participation through self-mobilisation. As such, development researchers may claim to use a participatory approach without yielding power and agency to citizens involved in the research. This is a reflexive article about a development researcher’s experience in applying a participatory worldview through co-operative inquiry, a research approach that attempts to engage emancipatory forms of participation. The article begins with a critical analysis of literature regarding participation, the participatory paradigm and participation in the co-operative inquiry. The author then analyses her personal experiences, challenges and strategies as initiating researcher to actualise empowering forms of participation in three co-operative inquiries. The article emphasises that researchers must “let go” of their power, control and personal agenda to support empowering participation.     

<Emphasis Type="Bold">An Engineering View for Social Systems: Agency as an Operational Principle for Designing Higher Education Access Policies</Emphasis>

Access to higher education (HE) has been a persistent concern for governments, practitioners and researchers. Access to HE has been widely studied from scientific perspectives that have focussed on the factors that contribute to the problem; however, authors have highlighted the need for systemic and design perspectives on education systems. The need to connect research with policy remains one of the most challenging issues for education researchers. In view of this gap, this paper argues that engineering thinking and methods represent an opportunity for the design of HE access policies because engineering rationality (distinct from scientific rationalities) matches the concerns and goals of any policymaking attempt. Engineers design artefacts to meet particular goals. These artefacts are artificial systems, tangible or intangible, such as hammers, bridges or whole organizations, which are designed in particular contexts to meet precise goals. Policies for access to HE are good examples of artefacts that seek to fulfil specific needs under concrete constraints inherent to a country or region. More specifically, HE systems are social systems; in other words, they are created and recreated by the interactions and decisions of diverse actors. Hence, to change, redesign or improve such types of systems involves engineering their very interactions that are the outcomes of institutional and human actions. In particular, engineering design requires operational principles. Thus, we propose agency as a fundamental design concept for the improvement of HE systems, which opens new possibilities for a distinct type of policy-making that takes excellent advantage of what engineering can offer, while at the same time expanding on traditional expectations for engineering.     

智能决策支持系统:研究现状与挑战

综述智能决策支持系统的研究内容和现状，从基于知识的系统及其与决策过程的关系出发，讨论了IDSS中的知识和知识处理系统，以知识和学习能力为线索，分析几种智能决策支持系统的不同类型，并进行比较分析，介绍了智能决策支持系统的体系结构，智能决策支持方法和决策支持系统中的认知问题等的研究成果，最后，分析了智能决策支持系统面临的挑战，提出了进一步的研究方向。     

Action Research in Inter-Organisational Networks: Impartial Studies or the Trojan Horse?

This article addresses the distinct ethical challenges of action research in inter-organisational projects. Traditionally, the literature on action research has distinguished between two researcher roles: The problem-solver and the observer. Based on an action research project in a Danish inter-organisational network, a third role as legitimiser is identified as an ethical challenge. Potentially, the legitimacy that the researchers carry as academic knowledge-generating actors may be used by a particular company to involve other companies in the network. Thus, the researchers may be perceived as bringing into the other organisations a Trojan Horse containing the interests of this particular company. Lack of clarity in defining the role of the action researcher may thus jeopardise the trustworthiness of the researchers and the action research project. On the basis of the case study analysis, the article develops a number of preliminary points of ethical consideration for future research analysis.     

Going Green from the Inside: Insider Action Research at the Volvo Car Corporation

Various forms of action research have been proposed as remedies for the one-sided focus on theoretical interests existing in Business School research. Among other conceptual elaborations, Insider Action Research (IAR) suggests that action research needs to be supported by an insider's view of activities in order to achieve any substantial contribution to practice and theory. Even though the IAR model is potentially capable of overcoming a number of practical, political, and epistemological problems, it has been explored relatively little in terms of practical examples and lessons. This paper presents the account of an Insider Action researcher at the Volvo Car Corporation, aimed at studying the development of environmental strategies and “eco-benign” automobiles “from the inside”. The paper suggests that even though IAR remains a promising model, the political ingenuity and savoir-faire of the insider action researcher must not be underrated.

Action Research: Its Nature and Validity

The process of knowledge acquisition which has the strongest truth claim is the research process of natural science, based on testing hypotheses to destruction. But the application of this process to phenomena beyond those for which it was developed, namely, the natural regularities of the physical universe, is problematical. For research into social phenomena there is increasing interest in action research in various forms. In this process the researcher enters a real-world situation and aims both to improve it and to acquire knowledge. This paper reviews the nature and validity of action research, arguing that its claim to validity requires a recoverable research process based upon a prior declaration of the epistemology in terms of which findings which count as knowledge will be expressed.     

Representation and Accountability in Glocal Governance and the 2030 Development Agenda: Narrowing the Gap between Perceived Needs and Outcomes

The paper responds to the 2030 Development Agenda and suggests a way to enhance representation and accountability by extending the Millennium Goals and UN Sustainable Development Agenda. It summarises the content of a forthcoming volume for the Contemporary Systems Series entitled: Towards a Planetary passport for Representation, Accountability and Re-generation’. The paper reflect on studies of alternative architectures for democracy and governance and suggests a way to extend local engagement in social, economic and environmental decision making. The paper discusses a new architectures for democracy and better governance through:

• Addressing the issue of a priori norms and a posteriori measures for transformation towards re-generative living
• Finding ways to match social, cultural, economic and environmental decisions to perceived needs with a focus on food, energy and water security
• Narrowing the gap between perceived needs and the way resources are distributed and the way it impacts on service outcomes.

     

Claremont Colleges Emergency Preparedness: An Action Research Initiative

This study examines the role of knowledge management systems in the context of emergency preparedness at Claremont University Consortium. The research objectives required the researcher's direct involvement with CUC. Canonical action research methodology was used to guide the project. Overall, the client was satisfied with the project's outcome. The researcher designed and implemented an instantiation of a web-based knowledge management system using Wiki technology. This system can assist CUC in overcoming some of its immediate concerns with emergency preparedness. These include the ability of the system to facilitate the communication process, and enable a more structured approach for documenting and storing emergency related information. The system as it exists today is subject to further improvement. This includes the need for continuous training with the system, improving the navigational aspects, and seeking a better fit between the system and the emergency planning and response processes.