Prolonged suppression of ecosystem carbon dioxide uptake after an anomalously warm year

Terrestrial ecosystems control carbon dioxide fluxes to and from the atmosphere through photosynthesis and respiration, a balance between net primary productivity and heterotrophic respiration, that determines whether an ecosystem is sequestering carbon or releasing it to the atmosphere. Global and site-specific data sets have demonstrated that climate and climate variability influence biogeochemical processes that determine net ecosystem carbon dioxide exchange (NEE) at multiple timescales. Experimental data necessary to quantify impacts of a single climate variable, such as temperature anomalies, on NEE and carbon sequestration of ecosystems at interannual timescales have been lacking. This derives from an inability of field studies to avoid the confounding effects of natural intra-annual and interannual variability in temperature and precipitation. Here we present results from a four-year study using replicate 12,000-kg intact tallgrass prairie monoliths located in four 184-m(3) enclosed lysimeters. We exposed 6 of 12 monoliths to an anomalously warm year in the second year of the study and continuously quantified rates of ecosystem processes, including NEE. We find that warming decreases NEE in both the extreme year and the following year by inducing drought that suppresses net primary productivity in the extreme year and by stimulating heterotrophic respiration of soil biota in the subsequent year. Our data indicate that two years are required for NEE in the previously warmed experimental ecosystems to recover to levels measured in the control ecosystems. This time lag caused net ecosystem carbon sequestration in previously warmed ecosystems to be decreased threefold over the study period, compared with control ecosystems. Our findings suggest that more frequent anomalously warm years, a possible consequence of increasing anthropogenic carbon dioxide levels, may lead to a sustained decrease in carbon dioxide uptake by terrestrial ecosystems.     

Winter forest soil respiration controlled by climate and microbial community composition

Most terrestrial carbon sequestration at mid-latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere occurs in seasonal, montane forest ecosystems. Winter respiratory carbon dioxide losses from these ecosystems are high, and over half of the carbon assimilated by photosynthesis in the summer can be lost the following winter. The amount of winter carbon dioxide loss is potentially susceptible to changes in the depth of the snowpack; a shallower snowpack has less insulation potential, causing colder soil temperatures and potentially lower soil respiration rates. Recent climate analyses have shown widespread declines in the winter snowpack of mountain ecosystems in the western USA and Europe that are coupled to positive temperature anomalies. Here we study the effect of changes in snow cover on soil carbon cycling within the context of natural climate variation. We use a six-year record of net ecosystem carbon dioxide exchange in a subalpine forest to show that years with a reduced winter snowpack are accompanied by significantly lower rates of soil respiration. Furthermore, we show that the cause of the high sensitivity of soil respiration rate to changes in snow depth is a unique soil microbial community that exhibits exponential growth and high rates of substrate utilization at the cold temperatures that exist beneath the snow. Our observations suggest that a warmer climate may change soil carbon sequestration rates in forest ecosystems owing to changes in the depth of the insulating snow cover.     

Net carbon dioxide losses of northern ecosystems in response to autumn warming

The carbon balance of terrestrial ecosystems is particularly sensitive to climatic changes in autumn and spring, with spring and autumn temperatures over northern latitudes having risen by about 1.1 degrees C and 0.8 degrees C, respectively, over the past two decades. A simultaneous greening trend has also been observed, characterized by a longer growing season and greater photosynthetic activity. These observations have led to speculation that spring and autumn warming could enhance carbon sequestration and extend the period of net carbon uptake in the future. Here we analyse interannual variations in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration data and ecosystem carbon dioxide fluxes. We find that atmospheric records from the past 20 years show a trend towards an earlier autumn-to-winter carbon dioxide build-up, suggesting a shorter net carbon uptake period. This trend cannot be explained by changes in atmospheric transport alone and, together with the ecosystem flux data, suggest increasing carbon losses in autumn. We use a process-based terrestrial biosphere model and satellite vegetation greenness index observations to investigate further the observed seasonal response of northern ecosystems to autumnal warming. We find that both photosynthesis and respiration increase during autumn warming, but the increase in respiration is greater. In contrast, warming increases photosynthesis more than respiration in spring. Our simulations and observations indicate that northern terrestrial ecosystems may currently lose carbon dioxide in response to autumn warming, with a sensitivity of about 0.2 PgC degrees C(-1), offsetting 90% of the increased carbon dioxide uptake during spring. If future autumn warming occurs at a faster rate than in spring, the ability of northern ecosystems to sequester carbon may be diminished earlier than previously suggested.     

林业碳汇提升的主要原理和途径

降低大气CO₂含量、缓解气候变暖,已成为当今科学界和国际社会广泛关注的前沿热点问题。林业碳汇作为基于自然解决方案实现“碳达峰、碳中和”的一个重要途径,在应对全球气候变化方面发挥着基础性、战略性、独特的作用。林业碳汇不仅是森林碳汇,林产品碳汇也起着不可忽视的重要作用。林业碳汇潜力提升是一个森林生态系统净碳收支平衡和全产业链林产品碳汇的调控过程,主要包括无机碳的植物固定(光合过程、净生产力等)、土壤有机碳的周转与固定(动植物和微生物残体分解与黏土固定)、林产品碳的固持(林产品产量、木材转换效率、种类和使用寿命等)等3方面的调控原理。笔者从森林碳汇和林产品碳汇两个维度阐述了提升林业碳汇的主要原理、方法或途径。提升林业碳汇潜力的主要途径包括:①通过适地适树、适钙适树人工造林,以增加森林面积;②以完善森林经营措施来增加森林净生产力;③利用矿质黏土对有机碳的保护来增加森林土壤碳汇;④提升林产品产量和改进林产品用途以增加其寿命。在全球尺度上,增加森林面积或提高森林净生产力3.4%,或用可再生能源替换薪炭木材,再将薪炭木材用于制造锯材和人造板,都可以连续30 a每年增加1 Pg的碳汇量。减少全球森林火灾面积1/4或增加森林土壤有机碳含量0.23%,也可以增加碳汇1 Pg。此外,林业固碳还有巨大潜力可以挖掘。     

Respiration as the main determinant of carbon balance in European forests

Carbon exchange between the terrestrial biosphere and the atmosphere is one of the key processes that need to be assessed in the context of the Kyoto Protocol. Several studies suggest that the terrestrial biosphere is gaining carbon, but these estimates are obtained primarily by indirect methods, and the factors that control terrestrial carbon exchange, its magnitude and primary locations, are under debate. Here we present data of net ecosystem carbon exchange, collected between 1996 and 1998 from 15 European forests, which confirm that many European forest ecosystems act as carbon sinks. The annual carbon balances range from an uptake of 6.6 tonnes of carbon per hectare per year to a release of nearly 1 t C ha(-1) yr(-1), with a large variability between forests. The data show a significant increase of carbon uptake with decreasing latitude, whereas the gross primary production seems to be largely independent of latitude. Our observations indicate that, in general, ecosystem respiration determines net ecosystem carbon exchange. Also, for an accurate assessment of the carbon balance in a particular forest ecosystem, remote sensing of the normalized difference vegetation index or estimates based on forest inventories may not be sufficient.     

Old-growth forests as global carbon sinks

Old-growth forests remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere at rates that vary with climate and nitrogen deposition. The sequestered carbon dioxide is stored in live woody tissues and slowly decomposing organic matter in litter and soil. Old-growth forests therefore serve as a global carbon dioxide sink, but they are not protected by international treaties, because it is generally thought that ageing forests cease to accumulate carbon. Here we report a search of literature and databases for forest carbon-flux estimates. We find that in forests between 15 and 800 years of age, net ecosystem productivity (the net carbon balance of the forest including soils) is usually positive. Our results demonstrate that old-growth forests can continue to accumulate carbon, contrary to the long-standing view that they are carbon neutral. Over 30 per cent of the global forest area is unmanaged primary forest, and this area contains the remaining old-growth forests. Half of the primary forests (6 x 10(8) hectares) are located in the boreal and temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere. On the basis of our analysis, these forests alone sequester about 1.3 +/- 0.5 gigatonnes of carbon per year. Thus, our findings suggest that 15 per cent of the global forest area, which is currently not considered when offsetting increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations, provides at least 10 per cent of the global net ecosystem productivity. Old-growth forests accumulate carbon for centuries and contain large quantities of it. We expect, however, that much of this carbon, even soil carbon, will move back to the atmosphere if these forests are disturbed.     

Reconciling the temperature dependence of respiration across timescales and ecosystem types

Ecosystem respiration is the biotic conversion of organic carbon to carbon dioxide by all of the organisms in an ecosystem, including both consumers and primary producers. Respiration exhibits an exponential temperature dependence at the subcellular and individual levels, but at the ecosystem level respiration can be modified by many variables including community abundance and biomass, which vary substantially among ecosystems. Despite its importance for predicting the responses of the biosphere to climate change, it is as yet unknown whether the temperature dependence of ecosystem respiration varies systematically between aquatic and terrestrial environments. Here we use the largest database of respiratory measurements yet compiled to show that the sensitivity of ecosystem respiration to seasonal changes in temperature is remarkably similar for diverse environments encompassing lakes, rivers, estuaries, the open ocean and forested and non-forested terrestrial ecosystems, with an average activation energy similar to that of the respiratory complex (approximately 0.65?electronvolts (eV)). By contrast, annual ecosystem respiration shows a substantially greater temperature dependence across aquatic (approximately 0.65?eV) versus terrestrial ecosystems (approximately 0.32?eV) that span broad geographic gradients in temperature. Using a model derived from metabolic theory, these findings can be reconciled by similarities in the biochemical kinetics of metabolism at the subcellular level, and fundamental differences in the importance of other variables besides temperature—such as primary productivity and allochthonous carbon inputs—on the structure of aquatic and terrestrial biota at the community level.     

气候变化对森林生态系统的主要影响述评

森林生态系统是陆地生态系统的主体,其对减少大气中的CO₂浓度从而减缓全球变暖有着决定性的作用。为了探究气候变化对森林生态系统的影响以及森林生态系统的反馈机制,发展合理的森林经营策略以应对气候变化,笔者综述了国内外有关气候变化对森林生态系统影响的相关研究方法与成果,重点讨论了气候变化对森林结构、组成和分布、森林生产力、森林碳库、森林生态系统生物多样性、生态系统生态服务功能等方面的影响,论述了森林生态系统对气候变化的反馈机制,并指出了现有研究的不足之处,提出了适应或者减缓气候变化对森林生态系统影响的森林经营策略,主要包括:①坚决贯彻实施退耕还林政策; ②加强保护天然林; ③制定科学的森林经营对策; ④加速我国碳汇林业的发展。     

Ecosystem carbon storage in arctic tundra reduced by long-term nutrient fertilization

Global warming is predicted to be most pronounced at high latitudes, and observational evidence over the past 25 years suggests that this warming is already under way. One-third of the global soil carbon pool is stored in northern latitudes, so there is considerable interest in understanding how the carbon balance of northern ecosystems will respond to climate warming. Observations of controls over plant productivity in tundra and boreal ecosystems have been used to build a conceptual model of response to warming, where warmer soils and increased decomposition of plant litter increase nutrient availability, which, in turn, stimulates plant production and increases ecosystem carbon storage. Here we present the results of a long-term fertilization experiment in Alaskan tundra, in which increased nutrient availability caused a net ecosystem loss of almost 2,000 grams of carbon per square meter over 20 years. We found that annual aboveground plant production doubled during the experiment. Losses of carbon and nitrogen from deep soil layers, however, were substantial and more than offset the increased carbon and nitrogen storage in plant biomass and litter. Our study suggests that projected release of soil nutrients associated with high-latitude warming may further amplify carbon release from soils, causing a net loss of ecosystem carbon and a positive feedback to climate warming.     

Antarctic climate cooling and terrestrial ecosystem response.

The average air temperature at the Earth's surface has increased by 0.06 degrees C per decade during the 20th century, and by 0.19 degrees C per decade from 1979 to 1998. Climate models generally predict amplified warming in polar regions, as observed in Antarctica's peninsula region over the second half of the 20th century. Although previous reports suggest slight recent continental warming, our spatial analysis of Antarctic meteorological data demonstrates a net cooling on the Antarctic continent between 1966 and 2000, particularly during summer and autumn. The McMurdo Dry Valleys have cooled by 0.7 degrees C per decade between 1986 and 2000, with similar pronounced seasonal trends. Summer cooling is particularly important to Antarctic terrestrial ecosystems that are poised at the interface of ice and water. Here we present data from the dry valleys representing evidence of rapid terrestrial ecosystem response to climate cooling in Antarctica, including decreased primary productivity of lakes (6-9% per year) and declining numbers of soil invertebrates (more than 10% per year). Continental Antarctic cooling, especially the seasonality of cooling, poses challenges to models of climate and ecosystem change.     

Acclimation of ecosystem CO2 exchange in the Alaskan Arctic in response to decadal climate warming

Long-term sequestration of carbon in Alaskan Arctic tundra ecosystems was reversed by warming and drying of the climate in the early 1980s, resulting in substantial losses of terrestrial carbon. But recent measurements suggest that continued warming and drying has resulted in diminished CO2 efflux, and in some cases, summer CO2 sink activity. Here we compile summer CO2 flux data for two Arctic ecosystems from 1960 to the end of 1998. The results show that a return to summer sink activity has come during the warmest and driest period observed over the past four decades, and indicates a previously undemonstrated capacity for ecosystems to metabolically adjust to long-term (decadal or longer) changes in climate. The mechanisms involved are likely to include changes in nutrient cycling, physiological acclimation, and population and community reorganization. Nevertheless, despite the observed acclimation, the Arctic ecosystems studied are still annual net sources of CO2 to the atmosphere of at least 40 g C m(-2) yr(-1), due to winter release of CO2, implying that further climate change may still exacerbate CO2 emissions from Arctic ecosystems.     

Offset of the potential carbon sink from boreal forestation by decreases in surface albedo

Carbon uptake by forestation is one method proposed to reduce net carbon dioxide emissions to the atmosphere and so limit the radiative forcing of climate change. But the overall impact of forestation on climate will also depend on other effects associated with the creation of new forests. In particular, the albedo of a forested landscape is generally lower than that of cultivated land, especially when snow is lying, and decreasing albedo exerts a positive radiative forcing on climate. Here I simulate the radiative forcings associated with changes in surface albedo as a result of forestation in temperate and boreal forest areas, and translate these forcings into equivalent changes in local carbon stock for comparison with estimated carbon sequestration potentials. I suggest that in many boreal forest areas, the positive forcing induced by decreases in albedo can offset the negative forcing that is expected from carbon sequestration. Some high-latitude forestation activities may therefore increase climate change, rather than mitigating it as intended.     

中国植被物候研究进展及展望

本文围绕气候变化背景下的中国植被物候研究,梳理了植被物候对气候变化的响应机制,分析了中国植被物候变化对陆地生态系统碳、水和能量循环的影响,植被物候变化对局地气候的反馈机制以及通过大气环流对气候系统的影响．主要结论:1)中国植被生长季开始日期提前1~6 d?(10 a)–1,结束日期推迟2~5 d?(10 a)–1,生长季显著延长;2)中国中高纬度地区植被对温度的响应明显高于亚热带和热带地区,温度在控制植被物候的过程中起到多重作用,降水主要影响干旱和半干旱地区的植被物候;3)植被生长季延长增加陆地生态系统生产力,增加中国碳汇;4)植被物候变化改变植被的蒸散发量,从而改变我国的流域尺度河流径流;5)在中国大部分地区,植被物候变化对气候系统产生负反馈作用,甚至影响大气环流过程．中国植被物候的研究越来越多,但仍存在亟待解决的科学问题,比如未来中国植被物候研究需要更加关注遥感数据反演精度,明确物候响应气候变化机制的尺度效应,结合机器学习等智能算法改进物候模型提高物候模拟精度,并重视农作物物候,加强物候与森林管理结合研究以提高我国生态系统碳汇能力,积极面对碳中和带来的机遇与挑战．      

洪湖湿地野菰群落储碳、固碳功能研究

通过实地调研与实验室测定相结合的方法,研究洪湖湿地野菰（Zizania latifolia）的现存生物量和初级生产力,测算其碳储量、固碳能力,探讨其固碳潜力.结果得出：洪湖湿地野菰地上现存生物量平均0.75kg.m-2（0.52～0.96kg.m-2）,现存碳储量平均0.33kg.m-2（0.23～0.42kg.m-2）;地下部分的生物现存量平均为1.47kg.m-2,其碳储量平均为0.65kg.m-2,均约为地上2倍,因此野菰碳储量主要在地下部分;洪湖湿地野菰地上部分净初级生产力平均合计达0.75kg.m-2.a-1,加上地下部分,平均为1.2kg.m-2.a-1,固碳能力为0.53kg.m-2.a-1,高于全国陆地植被平均固碳能力和全球植被平均固碳能力.与中国不同生态系统的固碳能力相比,由于洪湖湿地野菰种群郁闭度较高,其平均固碳能力强于城市、河流等生态系统,明显高于其他湖泊生态系统.     

降水量变化对内蒙古温带典型草原生态系统碳交换的影响

在全球变化的背景下,内蒙古草原生态系统的降水量可能增加或者减少.迄今,降水量的改变对该区域草地生态系统碳交换的影响我们还知之甚少.为此,本研究通过完全控水防雨棚,开展了降水梯度实验,探究该生态系统碳交换(ecosystem carbon exchange)随降水量变化的响应轨迹.结果表明:随着生长季降水量从100mm增加到500mm,净生态系统碳交换(net ecosystem exchange,NEE)、生态系统呼吸(ecosystem respiration,ER)和生态系统总生产力(gross ecosystem productivity,GEP)均显著提高,这些过程均表现为明显的非线性响应.NEE、ER和GEP的饱和点对应的降水量分别为350mm,200mm和275mm.从响应率的变化斜率看,降水量减少(275mm的处理)的效应显著强于降水量增加(275mm的处理)的效应.变异来源分析说明,随着降水量的改变,群落生物量是草原生态系统碳交换的首要影响因素,可以解释NEE、ER和GEP变异的30.89%、41.90%和40.60%,而土壤含水量和土壤温度只能解释NEE、ER和GEP变异的11.51%、7.78%和9.28%.上述结果为我们理解和预测未来降水变化对内蒙古温带典型草原生态系统碳交换的影响提供了依据.     

洪泽湖地区杨树人工林碳水通量昼夜和季节变化特征

【目的】通过对洪泽湖地区杨树人工林生态系统碳水通量的昼夜变化和季节变化特征进行分析,为评估该杨树人工林生态系统的固碳能力提供必要的基础数据,揭示杨树人工林生态系统碳循环及对外部气象环境因子的响应,同时为增强森林生态系统固碳能力提供依据。【方法】以洪泽湖地区杨树人工林生态系统为研究对象,利用涡度相关技术和微气象观测系统进行长期且连续的通量以及气象环境观测。选取2017年5月至2018年4月期间的原始观测数据,对异常数据进行剔除和插补处理,同时,利用EddyPro软件中的Express Mode模块对通量数据进行二次坐标旋转、频率损失订正以及WPL密度效应修正,最终转化为30 min数据。分析杨树人工林生态系统与大气间的二氧化碳(CO₂)、甲烷(CH₄)和潜热(latent heat, LE)通量的季节动态变化和昼夜变化特征及其与外部气象环境因子的相互关系。【结果】洪泽湖地区杨树人工林生态系统碳通量均有显著的昼夜和季节变化,净生态系统碳交换(net ecosystem exchange, NEE)白天为较强的碳汇,夜晚为较弱的碳源,整年表现为固碳作用,年通量为-506.9 g/(m²·a)。其日变化在生长季和非生长季均呈“U”形曲线,生长季的碳吸收明显大于非生长季;在生长季白天,NEE与光合有效辐射(photosynthetically active radiation, PAR)呈显著的对数关系;而在非生长季,NEE与夜间土壤温度(soil temperature,T_s)呈显著的指数关系。洪泽湖地区杨树人工林生态系统LE的昼夜和季节变化显著,在生长季和非生长季均呈“单峰型”曲线,且在生长季大于非生长季,LE与饱和水汽压差(vapor pressure deficit, VPD)在生长季和非生长季均呈显著的线性正相关关系。洪泽湖地区杨树人工林生态系统CH₄通量在生长季和非生长季均无显著的昼夜变化,在生长季为较弱的CH₄吸收,非生长季为中性至微弱的CH₄排放,全年可能表现为较微弱的CH₄汇。【结论】洪泽湖地区杨树人工林生态系统整体具有较高的固碳能力,CO₂和LE通量具有显著的昼夜变化和季节变化规律,而CH₄通量季节和昼夜变化并不显著,生态系统碳水通量受环境因子的影响较显著,可以为今后提升杨树人工林的固碳能力提供参考。因此,营造杨树人工林将是短期内吸收大气中的CO₂和CH₄并缓解气候变化的有效途径。     

Indirect radiative forcing of climate change through ozone effects on the land-carbon sink

The evolution of the Earth's climate over the twenty-first century depends on the rate at which anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions are removed from the atmosphere by the ocean and land carbon cycles. Coupled climate-carbon cycle models suggest that global warming will act to limit the land-carbon sink, but these first generation models neglected the impacts of changing atmospheric chemistry. Emissions associated with fossil fuel and biomass burning have acted to approximately double the global mean tropospheric ozone concentration, and further increases are expected over the twenty-first century. Tropospheric ozone is known to damage plants, reducing plant primary productivity and crop yields, yet increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations are thought to stimulate plant primary productivity. Increased carbon dioxide and ozone levels can both lead to stomatal closure, which reduces the uptake of either gas, and in turn limits the damaging effect of ozone and the carbon dioxide fertilization of photosynthesis. Here we estimate the impact of projected changes in ozone levels on the land-carbon sink, using a global land carbon cycle model modified to include the effect of ozone deposition on photosynthesis and to account for interactions between ozone and carbon dioxide through stomatal closure. For a range of sensitivity parameters based on manipulative field experiments, we find a significant suppression of the global land-carbon sink as increases in ozone concentrations affect plant productivity. In consequence, more carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere. We suggest that the resulting indirect radiative forcing by ozone effects on plants could contribute more to global warming than the direct radiative forcing due to tropospheric ozone increases.     

The spatial distribution of forest carbon sinks and sources in China

Forest ecosystems play an important role in the global carbon cycle.The implementation of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change(UNFCCC) and the Kyoto Protocol has made the study of forest ecosystem carbon cycling a hot topic of scientific research globally.This paper utilized Chinese national forest inventory data sets(for the periods 1984-1988 and 1999-2003),the vegetation map of China(1:1000000),and the spatially explicit net primary productivity(NPP) data sets derived with the remote sensing-based light use efficiency model(CASA model).We quantitatively estimated the spatial distribution of carbon sinks and sources of forest vegetation(with a resolution of 1 km) using the spatial downscaling technique.During the period 1984 to 2003 the forest vegetation in China represented a carbon sink.The total storage of carbon increased by 0.77 PgC,with a mean of 51.0TgCa 1.The total carbon sink was 0.88PgC and carbon source was 0.11 PgC during the study period.The carbon sink and carbon source of forest vegetation in China showed a clear spatial distribution pattern.Carbon sinks were mainly located in subtropical and temperate regions,with the highest values in Hainan Province,Hengduan mountain ranges,Changbai mountain ranges in Jilin,and south and northwest of the Da Hinggan Mountains;carbon sources were mainly distributed from the northeast to southwestern areas in China,with the highest values mainly concentrated in southern Yunnan Province,central Sichuan Basin,and northern Da Hinggan Mountains.Increase in NPP was strongly correlated with carbon sink strength.The regression model showed that more than 80% of the variation in the modeled carbon sinks in Northeast,Northern,Northwest and Southern China were explained by the variation in NPP increase.There was a strong relationship between carbon sink strength and forest stand age.     

Increased forest ecosystem carbon and nitrogen storage from nitrogen rich bedrock

Nitrogen (N) limits the productivity of many ecosystems worldwide, thereby restricting the ability of terrestrial ecosystems to offset the effects of rising atmospheric CO(2) emissions naturally. Understanding input pathways of bioavailable N is therefore paramount for predicting carbon (C) storage on land, particularly in temperate and boreal forests. Paradigms of nutrient cycling and limitation posit that new N enters terrestrial ecosystems solely from the atmosphere. Here we show that bedrock comprises a hitherto overlooked source of ecologically available N to forests. We report that the N content of soils and forest foliage on N-rich metasedimentary rocks (350-950?mg?N?kg(-1)) is elevated by more than 50% compared with similar temperate forest sites underlain by N-poor igneous parent material (30-70?mg?N?kg(-1)). Natural abundance N isotopes attribute this difference to rock-derived N: (15)N/(14)N values for rock, soils and plants are indistinguishable in sites underlain by N-rich lithology, in marked contrast to sites on N-poor substrates. Furthermore, forests associated with N-rich parent material contain on average 42% more carbon in above-ground tree biomass and 60% more carbon in the upper 30?cm of the soil than similar sites underlain by N-poor rocks. Our results raise the possibility that bedrock N input may represent an important and overlooked component of ecosystem N and C cycling elsewhere.     

Persistent near-tropical warmth on the Antarctic continent during the early Eocene epoch

The warmest global climates of the past 65 million years occurred during the early Eocene epoch (about 55 to 48 million years ago), when the Equator-to-pole temperature gradients were much smaller than today and atmospheric carbon dioxide levels were in excess of one thousand parts per million by volume. Recently the early Eocene has received considerable interest because it may provide insight into the response of Earth's climate and biosphere to the high atmospheric carbon dioxide levels that are expected in the near future as a consequence of unabated anthropogenic carbon emissions. Climatic conditions of the early Eocene 'greenhouse world', however, are poorly constrained in critical regions, particularly Antarctica. Here we present a well-dated record of early Eocene climate on Antarctica from an ocean sediment core recovered off the Wilkes Land coast of East Antarctica. The information from biotic climate proxies (pollen and spores) and independent organic geochemical climate proxies (indices based on branched tetraether lipids) yields quantitative, seasonal temperature reconstructions for the early Eocene greenhouse world on Antarctica. We show that the climate in lowland settings along the Wilkes Land coast (at a palaeolatitude of about 70° south) supported the growth of highly diverse, near-tropical forests characterized by mesothermal to megathermal floral elements including palms and Bombacoideae. Notably, winters were extremely mild (warmer than 10?°C) and essentially frost-free despite polar darkness, which provides a critical new constraint for the validation of climate models and for understanding the response of high-latitude terrestrial ecosystems to increased carbon dioxide forcing.