Discovery of a magma chamber and faults beneath a Mid-Atlantic Ridge hydrothermal field

Crust at slow-spreading ridges is formed by a combination of magmatic and tectonic processes, with magmatic accretion possibly involving short-lived crustal magma chambers. The reflections of seismic waves from crustal magma chambers have been observed beneath intermediate and fast-spreading centres, but it has been difficult to image such magma chambers beneath slow-spreading centres, owing to rough seafloor topography and associated seafloor scattering. In the absence of any images of magma chambers or of subsurface near-axis faults, it has been difficult to characterize the interplay of magmatic and tectonic processes in crustal accretion and hydrothermal circulation at slow-spreading ridges. Here we report the presence of a crustal magma chamber beneath the slow-spreading Lucky Strike segment of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The reflection from the top of the magma chamber, centred beneath the Lucky Strike volcano and hydrothermal field, is approximately 3 km beneath the sea floor, 3-4 km wide and extends up to 7 km along-axis. We suggest that this magma chamber provides the heat for the active hydrothermal vent field above it. We also observe axial valley bounding faults that seem to penetrate down to the magma chamber depth as well as a set of inward-dipping faults cutting through the volcanic edifice, suggesting continuous interactions between tectonic and magmatic processes.     

断面汇聚脊输导能力定量评价及其控藏作用

为研究旅大16油田油气差异富集原因，利用三维地震、断面曲率属性、三维热史模拟等方法，识别油源断裂断面汇聚脊，定量评价其输导油气能力，从而探讨断面汇聚脊对油气分布的控制作用。结果表明，研究区油源断裂共发育10条断面汇聚脊，断面汇聚脊受断面脊弯曲程度、断层活动性与接触烃源岩热演化程度匹配关系以及走滑压扭三因素耦合控制，输导油气能力差异明显。对比钻探结果，发现断面汇聚脊对于油气成藏具有明显控制作用：（1）断面汇聚脊控制浅层油气分布部位；（2）断面汇聚脊输导能力控制断块油气富集程度。该研究可为复杂断块区高丰度断块的优选提供技术支持与理论参考。     

三门峡盆地重力异常特征与构造格局

三门峡盆地位于汾渭地堑系东南端,秦岭纬向构造带和新华夏构造的交汇部位。研究其构造格局对盆地油气勘探具有重要意义。本文综合利用布格重力资料和野外观测资料,刻画盆地断裂特征并划分了构造单元。研究结果表明,三门峡盆地主要发育近EW向、NE向和NW向三组断裂系,包括4条边界断裂和13条盆地内次级断裂,且边界断裂多以断裂带形式呈现。盆地断裂多形成于前新生代,至第四纪趋于稳定,具有延伸长、切割深的特点。盆地西部布格重力异常值相对较高,剩余重力场盆内自北向南呈近EW向低-高-低的条带分布,且存在多个异常值不同的区域,表明新生代沉积地层较厚,并受断裂控制出现了沉降差异。受中条山南断裂、文底-宫前断裂、灵宝-三门峡断裂和三门峡-硖石断裂等断裂控制,三门峡盆地可划分为3个二级构造单元和9个三级构造单元,盆地自北向南依次为北部坳陷带、中部低隆起和南部坳陷带。整体表现为南北分带、凹隆相间的构造格局。     

淮北宿临矿区构造特征及演化

宿临矿区是淮北煤田的主要赋煤地带。自石炭二叠纪以来，该区经受了多次构造活动。在早期形成的徐准拗陷基础上主要发育有东西向及北北东向的断裂，这些断理解共同构成了矿区的基本构造格架。断块内褶皱多为开阔短轴褶皱，并发育有较大一级的北东向断层有层滑构造等。岩浆岩的侵入明显受断裂构造控制。矿区内地球物理场特征（场值及分布）也正证实了矿区内构造展布及演化的综合特征。而这种构造演化与华北板块南缘和东缘的两条板缘构造活动带密切相关。     

Magma-maintained rift segmentation at continental rupture in the 2005 Afar dyking episode

Seafloor spreading centres show a regular along-axis segmentation thought to be produced by a segmented magma supply in the passively upwelling mantle. On the other hand, continental rifts are segmented by large offset normal faults, and many lack magmatism. It is unclear how, when and where the ubiquitous segmented melt zones are emplaced during the continental rupture process. Between 14 September and 4 October 2005, 163 earthquakes (magnitudes greater than 3.9) and a volcanic eruption occurred within the approximately 60-km-long Dabbahu magmatic segment of the Afar rift, a nascent seafloor spreading centre in stretched continental lithosphere. Here we present a three-dimensional deformation field for the Dabbahu rifting episode derived from satellite radar data, which shows that the entire segment ruptured, making it the largest to have occurred on land in the era of satellite geodesy. Simple elastic modelling shows that the magmatic segment opened by up to 8 m, yet seismic rupture can account for only 8 per cent of the observed deformation. Magma was injected along a dyke between depths of 2 and 9 km, corresponding to a total intrusion volume of approximately 2.5 km3. Much of the magma appears to have originated from shallow chambers beneath Dabbahu and Gabho volcanoes at the northern end of the segment, where an explosive fissural eruption occurred on 26 September 2005. Although comparable in magnitude to the ten year (1975-84) Krafla events in Iceland, seismic data suggest that most of the Dabbahu dyke intrusion occurred in less than a week. Thus, magma intrusion via dyking, rather than segmented normal faulting, maintains and probably initiated the along-axis segmentation along this sector of the Nubia-Arabia plate boundary.     

Central role of detachment faults in accretion of slow-spreading oceanic lithosphere

The formation of oceanic detachment faults is well established from inactive, corrugated fault planes exposed on sea floor formed along ridges spreading at less than 80 km Myr(-1) (refs 1-4). These faults can accommodate extension for up to 1-3 Myr (ref. 5), and are associated with one of the two contrasting modes of accretion operating along the northern Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The first mode is asymmetrical accretion involving an active detachment fault along one ridge flank. The second mode is the well-known symmetrical accretion, dominated by magmatic processes with subsidiary high-angle faulting and the formation of abyssal hills on both flanks. Here we present an examination of approximately 2,500 km of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge between 12.5 and 35 degrees N, which reveals asymmetrical accretion along almost half of the ridge. Hydrothermal activity identified so far in the study region is closely associated with asymmetrical accretion, which also shows high levels of near-continuous hydroacoustically and teleseismically recorded seismicity. Increased seismicity is probably generated along detachment faults that accommodate a sizeable proportion of the total plate separation. In contrast, symmetrical segments have lower levels of seismicity, which occurs primarily at segment ends. Basalts erupted along asymmetrical segments have compositions that are consistent with crystallization at higher pressures than basalts from symmetrical segments, and with lower extents of partial melting of the mantle. Both seismic evidence and geochemical evidence indicate that the axial lithosphere is thicker and colder at asymmetrical sections of the ridge, either because associated hydrothermal circulation efficiently penetrates to greater depths or because the rising mantle is cooler. We suggest that much of the variability in sea-floor morphology, seismicity and basalt chemistry found along slow-spreading ridges can be thus attributed to the frequent involvement of detachment faults in oceanic lithospheric accretion.     

中国东海北北东向和北西向断裂带研究的新认识

对东海重、磁资料进行了各种转换处理,结合地震、地质资料,综合定性和定量解释的成果,对中国东海北北东向陆架西缘断裂带、陆架东缘断裂带和北西向桃花-粟国断裂带、渔山-久米断裂带进行了研究。指出中国东海北北东向和北西向断裂带中生代以来的活动经历了三个阶段,即印支-早燕山阶段的北北东向断裂带左旋平移、北西向断裂带碰撞、挤压,晚燕山-早喜山阶段北北东向断裂以“犁式正断层”方式活动,北西向断裂带左旋平移活动和晚喜山阶段北西向断裂的左旋平移活动。断裂活动表现出自西北向东南逐渐变新的特点。由于两组断裂带的活动。造成了东海盆地“东西分带”、“南北分块”的基本构造格局。三个阶段的活动方式分别与特提斯洋的俯冲、太平洋-库拉板块的北移,特提斯洋的封闭、印度板块的向北移动及太平洋板块运动方向的转变有关。     

Inconsistent correlation of seismic layer 2a and lava layer thickness in oceanic crust

At mid-ocean ridges with fast to intermediate spreading rates, the upper section of oceanic crust is composed of lavas overlying a sheeted dyke complex. These units are formed by dykes intruding into rocks overlying a magma chamber, with lavas erupting at the ocean floor. Seismic reflection data acquired over young oceanic crust commonly image a reflector known as 'layer 2A', which is typically interpreted as defining the geologic boundary between lavas and dykes. An alternative hypothesis is that the reflector is associated with an alteration boundary within the lava unit. Many studies have used mapped variability in layer 2A thickness to make inferences regarding the geology of the oceanic crust, including volcanic construction, dyke intrusion and faulting. However, there has been no link between the geologic and seismological structure of oceanic crust except at a few deep drill holes. Here we show that, although the layer 2A reflector is imaged near the top of the sheeted dyke complex at fast-spreading crust located adjacent to the Hess Deep rift, it is imaged significantly above the sheeted dykes section at intermediate-spreading crust located near the Blanco transform fault. Although the lavas and underlying transition zone thicknesses differ by about a factor of two, the shallow seismic structure is remarkably similar at the two locations. This implies that seismic layer 2A cannot be used reliably to map the boundary between lavas and dykes in young oceanic crust. Instead we argue that the seismic layer 2A reflector corresponds to an alteration boundary that can be located either within the lava section or near the top of the sheeted dyke complex of oceanic crust.     

甘孜-理塘断裂带构造演化与金矿的关系

论述了川西甘孜—理塘断裂带构造演化与金矿床成矿作用的关系,总结了区内金矿化的特征和金矿床类型。研究表明,甘孜—理塘断裂带是由韧性剪切带、逆冲断裂带、断陷盆地带、推覆构造带、脆性破碎带和平移走滑带相互叠加、改造而形成的复杂断裂带。其演化历史主要经历了晚三叠世卡尼期－诺利早期的洋壳俯冲、晚三叠世诺利晚期－瑞替期弧－陆碰撞、侏罗－白垩纪陆内会聚和喜马拉雅期断陷、推覆和平移剪切构造发育演化阶段。区内金矿化、金矿床（点）和金矿体的形成和分布,明显受断裂带的控制。金矿的成矿作用与该断裂带构造发展演化密切相关。     

Slip on 'weak' faults by the rotation of regional stress in the fracture damage zone

Slip on unfavourably oriented faults with respect to a remotely applied stress is well documented and implies that faults such as the San Andreas fault and low-angle normal faults are weak when compared to laboratory-measured frictional strength. If high pore pressure within fault zones is the cause of such weakness, then stress reorientation within or close to a fault is necessary to allow sufficient fault weakening without the occurrence of hydrofracture. From field observations of a major tectonic fault, and using laboratory experiments and numerical modelling, here we show that stress rotation occurs within the fractured damage zone surrounding faults. In particular, we find that stress rotation is considerable for unfavourably oriented 'weak' faults. In the 'weak' fault case, the damage-induced change in elastic properties provides the necessary stress rotation to allow high pore pressure faulting without inducing hydrofracture.     

An ultraslow-spreading class of ocean ridge

New investigations of the Southwest Indian and Arctic ridges reveal an ultraslow-spreading class of ocean ridge that is characterized by intermittent volcanism and a lack of transform faults. We find that the mantle beneath such ridges is emplaced continuously to the seafloor over large regions. The differences between ultraslow- and slow-spreading ridges are as great as those between slow- and fast-spreading ridges. The ultraslow-spreading ridges usually form at full spreading rates less than about 12 mm yr(-1), though their characteristics are commonly found at rates up to approximately 20 mm yr(-1). The ultraslow-spreading ridges consist of linked magmatic and amagmatic accretionary ridge segments. The amagmatic segments are a previously unrecognized class of accretionary plate boundary structure and can assume any orientation, with angles relative to the spreading direction ranging from orthogonal to acute. These amagmatic segments sometimes coexist with magmatic ridge segments for millions of years to form stable plate boundaries, or may displace or be displaced by transforms and magmatic ridge segments as spreading rate, mantle thermal structure and ridge geometry change.     

The role of crustal quartz in controlling Cordilleran deformation

Large-scale deformation of continents remains poorly understood more than 40 years after the plate tectonic revolution. Rock flow strength and mass density variations both contribute to stress, so both are certain to be important, but these depend (somewhat nebulously) on rock type, temperature and whether or not unbound water is present. Hence, it is unclear precisely how Earth material properties translate to continental deformation zones ranging from tens to thousands of kilometres in width, why deforming zones are sometimes interspersed with non-deforming blocks and why large earthquakes occasionally rupture in otherwise stable continental interiors. An important clue comes from observations that mountain belts and rift zones cyclically form at the same locations despite separation across vast gulfs of time (dubbed the Wilson tectonic cycle), accompanied by inversion of extensional basins and reactivation of faults and other structures formed in previous deformation events. Here we show that the abundance of crustal quartz, the weakest mineral in continental rocks, may strongly condition continental temperature and deformation. We use EarthScope seismic receiver functions, gravity and surface heat flow measurements to estimate thickness and seismic velocity ratio, v(P)/v(S), of continental crust in the western United States. The ratio v(P)/v(S) is relatively insensitive to temperature but very sensitive to quartz abundance. Our results demonstrate a surprising correlation of low crustal v(P)/v(S) with both higher lithospheric temperature and deformation of the Cordillera, the mountainous region of the western United States. The most plausible explanation for the relationship to temperature is a robust dynamical feedback, in which ductile strain first localizes in relatively weak, quartz-rich crust, and then initiates processes that promote advective warming, hydration and further weakening. The feedback mechanism proposed here would not only explain stationarity and spatial distributions of deformation, but also lend insight into the timing and distribution of thermal uplift and observations of deep-derived fluids in springs.     

中非裂谷盆地构造演化差异性与构造动力学机制

分析了不同空间位置盆地的构造演化差异性，并结合区域构造事件探讨了中非裂谷盆地的构造动力学成因机制。中非裂谷盆地包括两个分支体系：西非裂谷系主要呈左旋走滑双断式结构；中非裂谷系主要表现为单断式右旋走滑结构。研究区内有走滑盆地和伸展盆地两种类型：前者位于走滑断裂带内部，近似平行于走滑断裂带展布，走滑作用强，构造反转明显；后者位于走滑断裂带端部，与走滑断裂带斜交，伸展作用强，构造反转较弱。中非裂谷盆地发育3期裂陷—拗陷构造旋回：早白垩世，中非盆地同时发生强烈的裂陷作用；晚白垩世，不同空间位置盆地的裂谷作用强度差异明显并且经历构造反转；古近纪，只有近NW-SE向盆地发生第三期裂谷作用，而其他盆地处于拗陷期。中非裂谷盆地是非洲陆缘板块构造运动在非洲陆内3个块体差异应力作用的陆内响应，3期裂谷作用的构造动力来源不同：早白垩世中大西洋扩张、晚白垩世南大西洋快速扩张和印度洋扩张双重作用、古近纪非洲板块与欧洲板块主要碰撞及西北印度洋中脊扩张影响。     

基于局部特征尺度分解的旋转机械故障欠定盲源分离方法研究

针对传统盲源分离方法局限于源信号平稳、非高斯且相互独立,要求观测信号数不少于源信号数的问题,提出了一种基于局部特征尺度分解的旋转机械故障欠定盲源分离方法。采用局部特征尺度分解方法将观测信号分解为若干个内禀尺度分量,相当于对观测信号数进行升维,重组所有内禀尺度分量作为新的观测信号进行盲源分离,该方法不仅能分离非线性、非平稳的旋转机械故障信号,而且也可以解决观测信号数少于源信号数的欠定问题。通过模拟仿真和建立不平衡-碰摩-松动耦合故障的转子试验台进行试验分析,且与传统盲源分离方法进行对比,结果表明了该方法的有效性。     

Subduction erosion along the Middle America convergent margin

'Subduction erosion' has been invoked to explain material missing from some continents along convergent margins. It has been suggested that this form of tectonic erosion removes continental material at the front of the margin or along the underside of the upper (continental) plate. Frontal erosion is interpreted from disrupted topography at the base of a slope and is most evident in the wake of subducting seamounts. In contrast, structures resulting from erosion at the base of a continental plate are seldom recognized in seismic reflection images because such images typically have poor resolution at distances greater than approximately 5 km from the trench axis. Basal erosion from seamounts and ridges has been inferred, but few large subducted bodies--let alone the eroded base of the upper plate--are imaged convincingly. From seismic images we identify here two mechanisms of basal erosion: erosion by seamount tunnelling and removal of large rock lenses of a distending upper plate. Seismic cross-sections from Costa Rica to Nicaragua indicate that erosion may extend along much of the Middle America convergent margin.     

莫里青奢领组构造解释与构造圈闭识别

莫里青断陷是伊通盆地的一个二级构造单元。结合盆地基底形态、断裂分布特征、地层构造特征、盆地构造演化历史、盆地油气勘探现状等,莫里青断陷可进一步划分为西北缘断褶带、靠山凹陷、小孤山断阶带、尖山隆起带等三级构造单元。莫里青断陷的发育受控于近于平行的东、西两条边界断裂,即西北缘和东南缘边界断裂。断裂构造是伊通盆地最主要的构造类型之一,包括控盆边界断裂、盆地发育过程中产生的内部断裂及后期盆地反转挤压和基底隆升作用形成的断裂,它们形成数量众多、规模不等、走向不一、性质各异、形成时期不同的复杂断裂系统。分析构造圈闭形态演化、圈闭形成和破坏时期,再结合生、排烃时间和油气运移路径有效性分析,可对构造圈闭有效性、盆地油气资源前景作出合理的评价。     

太平洋火山特征与深部成因机制

太平洋板块边界和内部均发育大量火山，是研究地球火山的天然实验场。综述了太平洋火山特征与深部成因机制，表明研究人员对地球不同环境下的火山（包括大洋中脊、俯冲带岛弧、板内地幔柱等）进行了系统性研究，分别构建了减压熔融、俯冲板片脱水与富水地幔楔熔融、地幔柱高温熔融的经典模式。但目前学界对于板内非地幔柱型火山的深部岩浆起源以及浅部喷发通道等重要科学问题仍缺乏清晰的认识。未来需要采用创新观测手段，开展多学科交叉研究以取得突破。     

合肥盆地白垩纪伸展构造格局

合肥盆地早白垩世演化过程长期存在争议.利用最新的油气勘探地震资料,系统分析了盆地内主要断层及其东缘的郯庐断裂伸展活动在地震剖面上的构造表现,并在此基础上论述了合肥盆地东部白垩系朱巷组、响导铺组、张桥组的断裂-沉积响应.结合同位素年代学资料综合分析认为,合肥盆地伸展活动的起始时间为早白垩世中期,持续至古近纪末.同时采用2DMOVE模拟软件对断层的分析也支持了这一认识.该时期合肥盆地呈现复合式断陷构造格局,盆地东西部受北北东向郯庐断裂带与吴集断裂的伸展作用控制,出现了北北东向的半地堑式断陷盆地.同时,盆地北界及内部近东西向南倾断裂(寿县-定远断裂、肥中断裂、肥西-韩摆渡断裂)的伸展活动,又控制出现了近东西向、北断南超的半地堑式盆地,总体上为复合断陷盆地,其伸展活动发生在华北克拉通岩石圈减薄的背景下,与太平洋板块高角度俯冲有关.     

Mantle wedge control on back-arc crustal accretion

At mid-ocean ridges, plate separation leads to upward advection and pressure-release partial melting of fertile mantle material; the melt is then extracted to the spreading centre and the residual depleted mantle flows horizontally away. In back-arc basins, the subducting slab is an important control on the pattern of mantle advection and melt extraction, as well as on compositional and fluid gradients. Modelling studies predict significant mantle wedge effects on back-arc spreading processes. Here we show that various spreading centres in the Lau back-arc basin exhibit enhanced, diminished or normal magma supply, which correlates with distance from the arc volcanic front but not with spreading rate. To explain this correlation we propose that depleted upper-mantle material, generated by melt extraction in the mantle wedge, is overturned and re-introduced beneath the back-arc basin by subduction-induced corner flow. The spreading centres experience enhanced melt delivery near the volcanic front, diminished melting within the overturned depleted mantle farther from the corner and normal melting conditions in undepleted mantle farther away. Our model explains fundamental differences in crustal accretion variables between back-arc and mid-ocean settings.     

Subcontinental-scale crustal velocity changes along the Pacific-North America plate boundary

Transient tectonic deformation has long been noted within approximately 100 km of plate boundary fault zones and within active volcanic regions, but it is unknown whether transient motions also occur at larger scales within plates. Relatively localized transients are known to occur as both seismic and episodic aseismic events, and are generally ascribed to motions of magma bodies, aseismic creep on faults, or elastic or viscoelastic effects associated with earthquakes. However, triggering phenomena and systematic patterns of seismic strain release at subcontinental (approximately 1,000 km) scale along diffuse plate boundaries have long suggested that energy transfer occurs at larger scale. Such transfer appears to occur by the interaction of stresses induced by surface wave propagation and magma or groundwater in the crust, or from large-scale stress diffusion within the oceanic mantle in the decades following clusters of great earthquakes. Here we report geodetic evidence for a coherent, subcontinental-scale change in tectonic velocity along a diffuse approximately 1,000-km-wide deformation zone. Our observations are derived from continuous GPS (Global Positioning System) data collected over the past decade across the Basin and Range province, which absorbs approximately 25 per cent of Pacific-North America relative plate motion. The observed changes in site velocity define a sharp boundary near the centre of the province oriented roughly parallel to the north-northwest relative plate motion vector. We show that sites to the west of this boundary slowed relative to sites east of it by approximately 1 mm yr(-1) starting in late 1999.