Pnigalio agraules (Walker) and Pnigalio mediterraneus Ferrière and Delucchi (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae): two closely related valid species

The genus Pnigalio is very difficult to study because of the large intraspecific variability of many traits considered diagnostic. Pnigalio agraules (Walker) and Pnigalio mediterraneus Ferrière and Delucchi were synonymized in 1984 because it was not possible to distinguish them on the basis of morphology. Here we propose the revalidation of P. mediterraneus based on multiple evidence: two molecular markers, cytochrome oxidase subunit I (COI), and the second expansion segment (D2) of the 28S ribosomal subunit (28S-D2), host ranges and the shape of eggs. As the two valid species are potentially important parasitoids for biological control of key pests such as Bactrocera oleae (Rossi) and Cameraria ohridella Deschka and Dimic, practical consequences of the wrong synonymy are also discussed.     

The biology of some Phyllonorycter species (Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae) mining leaves of oak and beech

Summary

The oak leaf miners P. quercifoliella and P. harrisella were encountered at first generation densities of 40 and 48 mines per 1000 leaves in 1968 and 1969 and second generation densities of 179 and 211 mines per 1000 leaves. The 1969 densities for the two generations of P. maestingella on beech were 54 and 118 mines per 1000 leaves. The mines on oak were found to be aggregated on certain trees but the reason for this was not discovered. There was also aggregation on certain leaves within a tree.

The moths had two generations of adults per year at Dunham, the first generation mines appearing on the leaves in June and the second generation mines in August. P. maestingella seemed to be slightly in advance of the oak species.

The sampling data provided estimates of the mortality through 1969. Larval interference and mine damage caused negligible mortality. Death due to unknown factors figured prominently in the early instars but in the later instars, especially during the second generation, parasitism was important. Leaf browning was an added source of mortality in the second generation as was overwintering.

Fifteen species of hymenopterous parasites were bred from Phyllonorycter on oak and eight from P. maestingella on beech. Among these were some new host records. T. ecus was the most common first generation parasite of oak mines and C. nephereus. E. latreillei, S. sericeicornis, C. diallus and C. vittatus figured prominently in the second generation parasite complex. E. cilla was the commonest parasite of both generations of P. maestingella.     

Parasitoids of larch sawfly,Pristiphora erichsonii (Hartig) (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae) in Changbai Mountains

Eight parasitoids, Cleptes semiauratus (L.) (Chrysididae), Himerta impuncta Sheng, Polyblastus (Labroctonus) westringi Holmgren, Olesicampe erythropyga (Holmgren), Campodorus sp. and Mesochorus sp. (Ichneumonidae), Tritneptis lophyrorum (Ruschka) (Pteromalidae) and Myxexoristops sp. (Tachinidae), reared from cocoons of Pristiphora erichsonii (Hartig) (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae) in Changbai Mountains, Jilin Province in 2009–2010, are reported. Four hyperparasitoids of P. erichsonii, Phygadeuon bidentatus (Uchida) and Phygadeuon rugulosus Gravenhorst and Trichopria sp. (Diapriidae) reared from Myxexoristops sp., Phygadeuon sp. reared from C. semiauratus, are reported for the first time. The account ratio of Chrysididae, Ichneumonidae, Tachinidae and Pteromalidae was 59.5, 5.6, 32.4 and 2.4%, respectively. The parasitism rates of parasitoids of P. erichsonii were 31.5% in May 2009, 19.8% in October 2009 and 15.9% in June 2010. The emergence periods of parasitoids were from 16 May to 7 June 2009.     

A revision of the genus Ceratomerus (Diptera: Empididae: Ceratomerinae) of New Zealand

The genus Ceratomerus Philippi (Diptera: Empididae; Ceratomerinae) of New Zealand is revised and a key to species given. Thirteen species are recognized and the following new species are proposed: C. biseriatus sp. nov., C. flavus sp. nov., C. earlyi sp. nov., C. melaneus sp. nov., C. brevifurcatus sp. nov., C. tarsalis sp. nov. and C. vittatus sp. nov. The biology and phylogeny are briefly discussed.     

The armoured scale insects (Homoptera: Diaspididae) of avocado trees in Israel

Summary

Seven species of armoured scale insects infest avocado in Israel. Hemiberlesia lataniae (Signoret) and Abgrallaspis cyanophylli (Signoret) are the most abundant. Avocado seedlings become infested in the nurseries, thus serving as important sources for commercial grove contamination. Because larger diaspidid populations develop at the inside of the trees (as compared to their outside), and at height levels of 1·5–2·0 m (compared to 5·0–6·0 m), these regions were regularly sampled. Equal-area examinations of bark and leaf revealed that H. lataniae prefers the bark, A. cyanophylli the leaves. The populations of both scales undergo similar annual cycles on leaves, peaking during winter, ebbing in early summer. The specific settling pattern of most diaspidids on avocado leaves were figured. The somewhat-different settling sites of H. lataniae and A. cyanophylli apparently preclude competition when low numbers are present, but the former may be partially inhibited when large populations develop. Several predators and hymenopterous parasitoids attack the diaspidids, the parasitoids being most active in early summer. No economic injury to local avocado fruit by armoured scale insects has been reported in recent years. The reasons for this are discussed, and it is recommended that the present situation, in which no insecticides are used in avocado groves, be maintained.     

Tent construction and social organization in Cynopterus brachyotis (Muller) (Chiroptera: Pteropodidae) in Peninsular Malaysia

This study examined the tent-making behaviour and social organization of the lesser dog-faced fruit bat, Cynopterus brachyotis (Muller), in Peninsular Malaysia. Cynopterus brachyotis alters the leaves of eight species of broad-leafed palms (Palmae) to form palmate umbrella tents, the leaves of Scindapsus aureus Engl. (Araceae) to form apical tents, and the leaves of Dracaena fragrans Ker-Gawl (Liliaceae) to form conical tents. Cynopterus brachyotis also severed the roots of Cymbidium finlaysonianum Lindl (Orchidaceae), and the leaves and stems of Philodendron lacerum Schott (Araceae) to form stem tents. In addition, C. brachyotis also roosted in unmodified plants. Cynopterus brachyotis possesses a harem type of social organization, but it was not possible to distinguish between a resource-defence polygyny and female-defence polygyny mating system. Our observations indicate that dominant males construct tents, and recruit females for the purpose of gaining reproductive access.     

The parasitoid complex attacking coexisting Spanish populations of Euphydryas aurinia and Euphydryas desfontainii (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae,Melitaeini)

We report on a five‐year investigation of the complex of parasitoids associated with coexisting populations of Euphydryas aurinia and Euphydryas desfontainii at a Spanish site. A sample of over 7000 eggs, 1000 larvae and 200 pupae (the last of these in part having been experimentally placed) revealed the existence of no egg parasitoids, of three primary larval parasitoids and of five primary pupal parasitoids, plus 13 secondary and facultatively tertiary parasitoids associated with the cocoons of the main larval parasitoid, the specialist Cotesia sp. D. The most abundant secondary parasitoid, Neochrysocharis albiscapus, entirely escaped tertiary parasitism by being gregarious. The mortality induced by parasitoids on the butterfly populations, although heavy, was clearly partially minimized by secondary parasitoids acting on Cotesia sp. D. The striking coincidence of the parasitoid complexes attacking the two Euphydryas species suggests a good system for investigating apparent competition between hosts sharing common natural enemies.     

A new genus and new species (Orthoptera: Acrididae: Gomphocerinae) from south-east Xizang,China

In 2007, a 3-year survey was started in northeastern Italy to assess the influence of agricultural management on parasitoid composition and parasitism rates of parasitoids attacking larvae and pupae of Syrphidae (Diptera). Two types of management were considered – intensive (including wheat and maize monoculture with very low or null vegetation diversity) and extensive (with different types of habitats, characterized by a higher vegetation complexity). In habitats simplified by intensive agriculture, and particularly in maize fields, parasitism rates of syrphid larvae were higher than recorded in more diversified habitats. A substantial difference in the composition of the parasitoid complex was also found. In extensive and wheat sites, Diplazontinae (Braconidae), highly specialized to Syrphidae, were the dominant parasitoids, whereas in maize fields Pachyneuron (Pteromalidae) species, known as generalists, accounted for more than 80% of total parasitoids. In the habitats where Pachyneuron spp. were dominant, parasitism rates were very high. Conversely, in habitats where Diplazontinae were more abundant, the parasitism rates were very low. The higher rate of parasitism of syrphid larvae and pupae recorded in intensive monocultures could have a large impact on the development and control of aphid populations in such crops.     

Intense inhabitation and relaxed host-leaf preference of aquatic chironomid leaf-miners in headwater streams in Asian lucidophyllous forests

Submerged leaf litter in headwater streams covered by Asian lucidophyllous (glossy broad-leaved evergreen) forests was found to be frequently processed by leaf-mining larvae of a chironomid, Stenochironomus okialbus. The larva gnaws plant tissue of the mine wall while swimming and undulating its body in the water-filled mine. To detect the level of the inhabitation and host-preference of the aquatic leaf-miner, extensive samplings of mined leaves were made in various headwater streams covered by lucidophyllous forests in the Japanese Island Arc. The chironomid showed significant preference for leaf texture (evergreen to deciduous leaves) and for specific taxonomic groups of the host plants (Fagaceae and Lauraceae), whereas diverse taxa of leaves were utilised. The relaxed host-leaf preference unique among herbivorous insects is suggested to be caused by the larval water-circulating behaviour in their porous mines and by leaching and microbial decomposition of plants’ secondary metabolites in submerged leaves.     

A new genus of Neotropical whitefly,secreting blue-iridescent wax (Sternorrhyncha,Aleyrodidae, Aleurodicinae), and its parasitoids (Hymenoptera,Aphelinidae)

Azuraleurodicus pentarthrus Martin gen. and sp. n. is described from three different host plant families in Central and northern South America. Adults of both sexes were reared in culture and adult characters are discussed in addition to those of puparia. The systematic position of Azuraleurodicus within the Aleurodicinae is discussed. One new combination, Aleuronudus ferrisi (Sampson and Drews) comb. n., is here proposed in the course of discussion. The secretion of blue wax by whiteflies is discussed and illustrated by colour photographs. Two species of hymenopterous parasitoids, Dirphys aphania Polaszek sp. n. and Encarsiella pithecura, Polaszek sp. n. emerged from puparia of Azuraleurodicus pentarthrus and are here described.     

New damselfly hosts and species identification of an aquatic parasitoid Hydrophylita emporos (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) in Taiwan

ABSTRACT

The host–parasitoid relationship and species identity of aquatic parasitoids of two damselflies Coeliccia cyanomelas (Platycnemididae) and Psolodesmus mandarinus dorothea (Calopterygidae) from Fushan and Lienhuachih in Taiwan were studied using morphological characters and DNA barcoding sequences. The parasitoids reared from the damselflies’ eggs, and the field-collected parasitoids, were morphologically identified as Hydrophylita emporos (Trichogrammatidae), a recently described parasitoid of the damselfly P. m. mandarinus from Northern Taiwan. The CO1 (cytochrome c oxidase I) gene tree supported the identification as H. emporos, as well as all parasitoid samples from C. cyanomelas, P. m. dorothea and P. m. mandarinus. The sampled H. emporos populations did not differ genetically despite their different host associations. However, some genetic differences were found between H. emporos populations from Northern and Central Taiwan, indicating that the dispersal of H. emporos may be limited by geographical distances. Our results suggest that H. emporos can parasitise not only closely related sister subspecies, P. m. mandarinus and P. m. dorothea, but also phylogenetically distant species of another damselfly family, C. cyanomelas. This is the first record of multiple damselfly hosts for the aquatic parasitoid genus Hydrophylita. This finding implies that the host range of H. emporos and congeneric species may be broader than previously thought.     

Gregarine infection of adult Calopteryx virgo L. (Odonata: Zygoptera)

The zygopteran Calopteryx virgo from a habitat in western Norway was found to be infected by the eugregarine Hoplorhynchus oligacanthus. Females were most heavily infected, in contrast to other gregarine-infected zygopteran species, where no differences between males and females have been recognized. This disparity between males and females of C. virgo is attributed to their dissimilar behaviour and place of activity. The gregarine infection of C. virgo is considered in relation to infected coexisting zygopteran populations.     

Foraging behaviour of three sphaerodactylin geckos on Trinidad and Tobago (Sauria: Gekkonomorpha: Sphaerodactylini: Gonatodes)

Taxonomic families of insectivorous lizards are usually characterized by one of two distinct foraging modes, namely ambush ‘sit-and-wait’ or active ‘widely foraging’. In the Gekkonomorpha the situation has been unclear and in dispute, and among these, that in the Sphaerodactylini is almost unreported. We, therefore, examined the foraging mode of three sphaerodactylin species on Trinidad and Tobago, in May—June 2000 (totalling 72 individuals, observations averaging 23.6 min/individual). In terms of species averages, Gonatodes vittatus, G. humeralis and G. ocellatus all moved for only 1.6–3.55% of observation time (PTM, percent time moving), and switched from sitting to locomoting only 0.18–0.36 times per minute (MPM, moves per minute). The genus thus is a strict sit-and-wait forager. In G. vittatus, the foraging mode was unaffected by sex or habitat structure. In all three species, foraging mode was unaffected by the time of day or air temperature. In G. humeralis, foraging activity (PTM or MPM) correlated with light intensity in the forest within a population (at least MPM) and among populations (at least PTM). Among the three species, too, foraging activity (PTM and MPM) ranked with light intensity during sampling. In all three species, the geckos perched for 68–76% of the time (at any height) with the head pointing down, apparently so as to see better. In conclusion, the three species are strict sit-and-wait' visual hunters that are dependent on light.     

The parasitoid complex and parasitoid‐induced mortality of spiders (Araneae) in a Central European woodland

The parasitoid complex of spiders was studied in three different sites of a forest and, for comparison, in open habitats in north‐western Lower Saxony (Germany). Qualitative data and, for four spider species, detailed quantitative rearing data were obtained. At least 25 parasitoids of spiders were recorded (23 species of Hymenoptera and two species of Diptera). External parasitoids of spiders were rare in the woodlands; only up to 1% of the spiders collected by hand searching and sweep netting had ectoparasitoids. During the investigation 23 parasitoid species were reared from spider egg masses, 10 of them occurring in woodlands. Two species were secondary parasitoids. Several parasitoid–host relationships were recorded for the first time. Egg masses of Floronia bucculenta were parasitized up to 5% by two species of the genus Gelis. Up to 10% of the egg masses of Linyphia hortensis were parasitized by Aclastus species. Egg masses of the spider genus Ero were parasitized by three species, causing an overall mortality of 40%. For egg masses of Agroeca spp. parasitization at some locations was up to 60%. An overview of the Central European parasitoid complex of spiders is provided.     

Host ranges of parasitoids (Hymenoptera: Braconidae and Ichneumonidae) reared from Epermenia chaerophyllella (Goeze) (Lepidoptera: Epermeniidae) in Britain,with description of a new species of Triclistus (Ichneumonidae)

The complex of parasitoids attacking larval stages of Epermenia chaerophyllella in Britain is outlined, and the host range of each of the species recorded (three braconids and four ichneumonids) is discussed. ‘Ecological’ factors, such as the behavioural similarity of unrelated hosts during the vulnerable parts of their life histories, seem to have been important in the evolution of the host associations of several of these parasitoids, even though they are koinobionts. A new species, Triclistus epermeniae Shaw and Aeschlimann, is described.     

Nesting habits of the Japanese foliage spider,Cheiracanthium japonicum (Araneae: Miturgidae): host plant preference based on the physical traits of plant leaves

A Japanese foliage spider, Cheiracanthium japonicum, builds nests with plant leaves. The nests are classified into seven types in relation to the seasons and purposes of nesting. We investigated whether the spider selects a plant species according to the nest type and how the physical traits of leaves influence the spider's plant selection. The difference between the composition of the host plant species used for nesting and that of the seasonal vegetation cover was confirmed. This suggests that the spider chooses the host plant species regardless of its abundance in their habitat. Early juveniles use small living or large dead leaves of various plant species to build moulting nests. Females prefer long and large leaves found in Miscanthus sinensis and Phragmites japonica over other plant leaves to build breeding nests.     

Geographical distributions and host associations of larval parasitoids of frugivorous Drosophilidae in Japan

In Japan, dominant parasitoids attacking frugivorous Drosophilidae species were Asobara (Braconidae, Alysiinae), Leptopilina, and Ganaspis species (Figitidae, Eucoilinae). Asobara japonica was found throughout Japan, and its populations in the main islands of Japan were parthenogenetic whereas those in the subtropical islands were sexually reproducing. Other parasitoids showed rather restricted distributions; A.tabida, A. rossica, A. rufescens, and Leptopilina heterotoma occurred mainly in northern to central parts of the main islands, Ganaspis xanthopoda from central to southern parts of the main islands, A. leveri in a southern part of the main islands, and A. pleuralis, L. victoriae, and Ganaspis sp. mainly in the subtropical islands. Their major hosts were species of the D. melanogaster species group in the main islands, and species of the D. melanogaster, immigrans, and polychaeta species groups in the subtropical islands. Host use considerably varied among parasitoid species, especially in the subtropical islands.     

The preimaginal stages of Minotetrastichus frontalis (Nees) and Chrysocharis laomedon (Walker) (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae), parasitoids associated with Phyllonorycter issikii (Kumata) (Lepidoptera,Gracillariidae)

The biology and morphology of the early larval instars of Minotetrastichus frontalis (Nees) are redescribed and the morphology of the preimaginal stages of Chrysocharis laomedon (Walker) (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) are described in detail for the first time. Both species are larval-pupal parasitoids of Phyllonorycter issikii (Lepidoptera, Gracillariidae), which is associated with Tilia sp. The female of M. frontalis lays her egg beside the host larva and the newly hatched first instar larva moves and has to find the host larva. The larva of P. issikii tries to continue its feeding but never pupates after paralysis. The female of C. laomedon lays its egg inside the cuticle of the larva of P. issikii, but the newly hatched parasitoid larva vacates the host larva and develops externally on its surface as an ectoparasitoid. Such behaviour might be facilitated by the constant temperature and humidity inside the mine. Some peculiarities of parasitoid–host relationships are described and discussed.     

Host–parasite relationships and life cycles of cuckoo wasps in agro-ecosystems in Argentina (Hymenoptera: Chrysididae: Chrysidini)

Chrysididae is a diverse group of parasitoid/cleptoparasitic wasps; however, host–parasite relationships and life cycles of few species have been studied. Nests of different wasp and bee species were obtained during a trap-nesting programme, in the Pampean region. Some of these nests were parasitised by cuckoo wasps females of Caenochrysis taschenbergi (Mocsáry), Chrysis boutheryi (Brèthes), C. saltana Bohart, C. sp. 1 (ignita-group), C. sp. 2 (ignita-group), Neochrysis lecointei (Ducke), Pleurochrysis ancilla (Buysson) and P. lynchi (Bréthes). This paper reports new data about host–parasite relationships and life cycles for these species. Multiple parasites (from one species or from different families of insects) emerged from single cells of some parasitised nests: from each host cell parasitised by species of Pleurochrysis, two adults emerged successfully, information previously unknown for the genus; and in three cases of cells parasitised by C. boutheryi, two adults successfully emerged from a single cell; in two cases both individuals were chrysidine, and in third one was chrysidine and one Leucospis pulchripes (Leucospidae).     

Descriptions of two new species of the genus Agathis Latreille (Hymenoptera,Braconidae, Agathidinae) from Spain,with a record of mating by one species on flowers

Two new species of the genus Agathis Latreille, A. icarus sp. n. and A. nixoni sp. n., are described from southern Spain. Both species were observed feeding on the nectar of Anacyclus clavatus (Desf.) Pers.. (Asteraceae). A. nixoni was also observed mating on flowers. Mating by parasitoids at feeding sites is discussed.