Subnanometre-resolution structure of the intact Thermus thermophilus H+-driven ATP synthase

Ion-translocating rotary ATPases serve either as ATP synthases, using energy from a transmembrane ion motive force to create the cell's supply of ATP, or as transmembrane ion pumps that are powered by ATP hydrolysis. The members of this family of enzymes each contain two rotary motors: one that couples ion translocation to rotation and one that couples rotation to ATP synthesis or hydrolysis. During ATP synthesis, ion translocation through the membrane-bound region of the complex causes rotation of a central rotor that drives conformational changes and ATP synthesis in the catalytic region of the complex. There are no structural models available for the intact membrane region of any ion-translocating rotary ATPase. Here we present a 9.7?? resolution map of the H(+)-driven ATP synthase from Thermus thermophilus obtained by electron cryomicroscopy of single particles in ice. The 600-kilodalton complex has an overall subunit composition of A(3)B(3)CDE(2)FG(2)IL(12). The membrane-bound motor consists of a ring of L subunits and the carboxy-terminal region of subunit I, which are equivalent to the c and a subunits of most other rotary ATPases, respectively. The map shows that the ring contains 12 L subunits and that the I subunit has eight transmembrane helices. The L(12) ring and I subunit have a surprisingly small contact area in the middle of the membrane, with helices from the I subunit making contacts with two different L subunits. The transmembrane helices of subunit I form bundles that could serve as half-channels across the membrane, with the first half-channel conducting protons from the periplasm to the L(12) ring and the second half-channel conducting protons from the L(12) ring to the cytoplasm. This structure therefore suggests the mechanism by which a transmembrane proton motive force is converted to rotation in rotary ATPases.     

Structure of the membrane domain of respiratory complex I

Complex I is the first and largest enzyme of the respiratory chain, coupling electron transfer between NADH and ubiquinone to the translocation of four protons across the membrane. It has a central role in cellular energy production and has been implicated in many human neurodegenerative diseases. The L-shaped enzyme consists of hydrophilic and membrane domains. Previously, we determined the structure of the hydrophilic domain. Here we report the crystal structure of the Esherichia coli complex I membrane domain at 3.0?? resolution. It includes six subunits, NuoL, NuoM, NuoN, NuoA, NuoJ and NuoK, with 55 transmembrane helices. The fold of the homologous antiporter-like subunits L, M and N is novel, with two inverted structural repeats of five transmembrane helices arranged, unusually, face-to-back. Each repeat includes a discontinuous transmembrane helix and forms half of a channel across the membrane. A network of conserved polar residues connects the two half-channels, completing the proton translocation pathway. Unexpectedly, lysines rather than carboxylate residues act as the main elements of the proton pump in these subunits. The fourth probable proton-translocation channel is at the interface of subunits N, K, J and A. The structure indicates that proton translocation in complex I, uniquely, involves coordinated conformational changes in six symmetrical structural elements.     

High-resolution X-ray structure of an early intermediate in the bacteriorhodopsin photocycle.

Bacteriorhodopsin is the simplest known photon-driven proton pump and as such provides a model for the study of a basic function in bioenergetics. Its seven transmembrane helices encompass a proton translocation pathway containing the chromophore, a retinal molecule covalently bound to lysine 216 through a protonated Schiff base, and a series of proton donors and acceptors. Photoisomerization of the all-trans retinal to the 13-cis configuration initiates the vectorial translocation of a proton from the Schiff base, the primary proton donor, to the extracellular side, followed by reprotonation of the Schiff base from the cytoplasm. Here we describe the high-resolution X-ray structure of an early intermediate in the photocycle of bacteriorhodopsin, which is formed directly after photoexcitation. A key water molecule is dislocated, allowing the primary proton acceptor, Asp 85, to move. Movement of the main-chain Lys 216 locally disrupts the hydrogen-bonding network of helix G, facilitating structural changes later in the photocycle.     

Structural changes linked to proton translocation by subunit c of the ATP synthase

F1F0 ATP synthases use a transmembrane proton gradient to drive the synthesis of cellular ATP. The structure of the cytosolic F1 portion of the enzyme and the basic mechanism of ATP hydrolysis by F1 are now well established, but how proton translocation through the transmembrane F0 portion drives these catalytic changes is less clear. Here we describe the structural changes in the proton-translocating F0 subunit c that are induced by deprotonating the specific aspartic acid involved in proton transport. Conformational changes between the protonated and deprotonated forms of subunit c provide the structural basis for an explicit mechanism to explain coupling of proton translocation by F0 to the rotation of subunits within the core of F1. Rotation of these subunits within F1 causes the catalytic conformational changes in the active sites of F1 that result in ATP synthesis.     

Crystal structure of the plasma membrane proton pump

A prerequisite for life is the ability to maintain electrochemical imbalances across biomembranes. In all eukaryotes the plasma membrane potential and secondary transport systems are energized by the activity of P-type ATPase membrane proteins: H+-ATPase (the proton pump) in plants and fungi, and Na+,K+-ATPase (the sodium-potassium pump) in animals. The name P-type derives from the fact that these proteins exploit a phosphorylated reaction cycle intermediate of ATP hydrolysis. The plasma membrane proton pumps belong to the type III P-type ATPase subfamily, whereas Na+,K+-ATPase and Ca2+-ATPase are type II. Electron microscopy has revealed the overall shape of proton pumps, however, an atomic structure has been lacking. Here we present the first structure of a P-type proton pump determined by X-ray crystallography. Ten transmembrane helices and three cytoplasmic domains define the functional unit of ATP-coupled proton transport across the plasma membrane, and the structure is locked in a functional state not previously observed in P-type ATPases. The transmembrane domain reveals a large cavity, which is likely to be filled with water, located near the middle of the membrane plane where it is lined by conserved hydrophilic and charged residues. Proton transport against a high membrane potential is readily explained by this structural arrangement.     

费尔干猪毛菜液泡膜氢离子焦磷酸酶基因SfVP的克隆、序列分析及表达

植物液泡膜氢离子焦磷酸酶(Vacuolar H+-PPase,VP)能够酸化液泡并为液泡的次级转运系统提供能量,在植物耐盐性方面发挥着着重要作用。本研究采用RT-PCR结合RACE方法,从费尔干猪毛菜中(Salsola ferganica)克隆得到液泡膜质子焦磷酸酶基因SfVP,该基因的cDNA全长2738 bp,包含1个2301 bp的完整开放读码框(ORF),编码766个氨基酸的多肽。氨基酸序列分析表明其属于H+-转运无机焦磷酸酶超家族成员,具有典型的H+-PPase结构域,其疏水性较强,含有12个跨膜螺旋结构。SfVP序列比对显示具有H+-PPase的3个保守序列CS1、CS2和CS3,其中CS1中含有保守的底物催化位点,与烟草的NtVP氨基酸序列相似性为95.3%。半定量RT-PCR结果表明,SfVP的转录表达丰度随着600 mmol/L NaCl处理时间的增加而升高,处理12 h后显著增加并一直维持在较高水平。     

A mechanistic principle for proton pumping by cytochrome c oxidase

In aerobic organisms, cellular respiration involves electron transfer to oxygen through a series of membrane-bound protein complexes. The process maintains a transmembrane electrochemical proton gradient that is used, for example, in the synthesis of ATP. In mitochondria and many bacteria, the last enzyme complex in the electron transfer chain is cytochrome c oxidase (CytcO), which catalyses the four-electron reduction of O2 to H2O using electrons delivered by a water-soluble donor, cytochrome c. The electron transfer through CytcO, accompanied by proton uptake to form H2O drives the physical movement (pumping) of four protons across the membrane per reduced O2. So far, the molecular mechanism of such proton pumping driven by electron transfer has not been determined in any biological system. Here we show that proton pumping in CytcO is mechanistically coupled to proton transfer to O2 at the catalytic site, rather than to internal electron transfer. This scenario suggests a principle by which redox-driven proton pumps might operate and puts considerable constraints on possible molecular mechanisms by which CytcO translocates protons.     

Crystal structure of the sodium-potassium pump

The Na+,K+-ATPase generates electrochemical gradients for sodium and potassium that are vital to animal cells, exchanging three sodium ions for two potassium ions across the plasma membrane during each cycle of ATP hydrolysis. Here we present the X-ray crystal structure at 3.5 A resolution of the pig renal Na+,K+-ATPase with two rubidium ions bound (as potassium congeners) in an occluded state in the transmembrane part of the alpha-subunit. Several of the residues forming the cavity for rubidium/potassium occlusion in the Na+,K+-ATPase are homologous to those binding calcium in the Ca2+-ATPase of sarco(endo)plasmic reticulum. The beta- and gamma-subunits specific to the Na+,K+-ATPase are associated with transmembrane helices alphaM7/alphaM10 and alphaM9, respectively. The gamma-subunit corresponds to a fragment of the V-type ATPase c subunit. The carboxy terminus of the alpha-subunit is contained within a pocket between transmembrane helices and seems to be a novel regulatory element controlling sodium affinity, possibly influenced by the membrane potential.     

Reduction of cytochrome c oxidase by a second electron leads to proton translocation

Cytochrome c oxidase, the terminal enzyme of cellular respiration in mitochondria and many bacteria, reduces O(2) to water. This four-electron reduction process is coupled to translocation (pumping) of four protons across the mitochondrial or bacterial membrane; however, proton pumping is poorly understood. Proton pumping was thought to be linked exclusively to the oxidative phase, that is, to the transfer of the third and fourth electron. Upon re-evaluation of these data, however, this proposal has been questioned, and a transport mechanism including proton pumping in the reductive phase--that is, during the transfer of the first two electrons--was suggested. Subsequently, additional studies reported that proton pumping during the reductive phase can occur, but only when it is immediately preceded by an oxidative phase. To help clarify the issue we have measured the generation of the electric potential across the membrane, starting from a defined one-electron reduced state. Here we show that a second electron transfer into the enzyme leads to charge translocation corresponding to pumping of one proton without necessity for a preceding turnover.     

Recognition of transmembrane helices by the endoplasmic reticulum translocon

Membrane proteins depend on complex translocation machineries for insertion into target membranes. Although it has long been known that an abundance of nonpolar residues in transmembrane helices is the principal criterion for membrane insertion, the specific sequence-coding for transmembrane helices has not been identified. By challenging the endoplasmic reticulum Sec61 translocon with an extensive set of designed polypeptide segments, we have determined the basic features of this code, including a 'biological' hydrophobicity scale. We find that membrane insertion depends strongly on the position of polar residues within transmembrane segments, adding a new dimension to the problem of predicting transmembrane helices from amino acid sequences. Our results indicate that direct protein-lipid interactions are critical during translocon-mediated membrane insertion.     

The ion pathway through the opened Na(+),K(+)-ATPase pump

P-type ATPases pump ions across membranes, generating steep electrochemical gradients that are essential for the function of all cells. Access to the ion-binding sites within the pumps alternates between the two sides of the membrane to avoid the dissipation of the gradients that would occur during simultaneous access. In Na(+),K(+)-ATPase pumps treated with the marine agent palytoxin, this strict alternation is disrupted and binding sites are sometimes simultaneously accessible from both sides of the membrane, transforming the pumps into ion channels (see, for example, refs 2, 3). Current recordings in these channels can monitor accessibility of introduced cysteine residues to water-soluble sulphydryl-specific reagents. We found previously that Na(+),K(+) pump-channels open to the extracellular surface through a deep and wide vestibule that emanates from a narrower pathway between transmembrane helices 4 and 6 (TM4 and TM6). Here we report that cysteine scans from TM1 to TM6 reveal a single unbroken cation pathway that traverses palytoxin-bound Na(+),K(+) pump-channels from one side of the membrane to the other. This pathway comprises residues from TM1, TM2, TM4 and TM6, passes through ion-binding site II, and is probably conserved in structurally and evolutionarily related P-type pumps, such as sarcoplasmic- and endoplasmic-reticulum Ca(2+)-ATPases and H(+),K(+)-ATPases.     

Structure of an ABC transporter in complex with its binding protein

ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter proteins carry diverse substrates across cell membranes. Whereas clinically relevant ABC exporters are implicated in various diseases or cause multidrug resistance of cancer cells, bacterial ABC importers are essential for the uptake of nutrients, including rare elements such as molybdenum. A detailed understanding of their mechanisms requires direct visualization at high resolution and in distinct conformations. Our recent structure of the multidrug ABC exporter Sav1866 has revealed an outward-facing conformation of the transmembrane domains coupled to a closed conformation of the nucleotide-binding domains, reflecting the ATP-bound state. Here we present the 3.1 A crystal structure of a putative molybdate transporter (ModB2C2) from Archaeoglobus fulgidus in complex with its binding protein (ModA). Twelve transmembrane helices of the ModB subunits provide an inward-facing conformation, with a closed gate near the external membrane boundary. The ATP-hydrolysing ModC subunits reveal a nucleotide-free, open conformation, whereas the attached binding protein aligns the substrate-binding cleft with the entrance to the presumed translocation pathway. Structural comparison of ModB2C2A with Sav1866 suggests a common alternating access and release mechanism, with binding of ATP promoting an outward-facing conformation and dissociation of the hydrolysis products promoting an inward-facing conformation.     

Proton-coupled electron transfer drives the proton pump of cytochrome c oxidase

Electron transfer in cell respiration is coupled to proton translocation across mitochondrial and bacterial membranes, which is a primary event of biological energy transduction. The resulting electrochemical proton gradient is used to power energy-requiring reactions, such as ATP synthesis. Cytochrome c oxidase is a key component of the respiratory chain, which harnesses dioxygen as a sink for electrons and links O2 reduction to proton pumping. Electrons from cytochrome c are transferred sequentially to the O2 reduction site of cytochrome c oxidase via two other metal centres, Cu(A) and haem a, and this is coupled to vectorial proton transfer across the membrane by a hitherto unknown mechanism. On the basis of the kinetics of proton uptake and release on the two aqueous sides of the membrane, it was recently suggested that proton pumping by cytochrome c oxidase is not mechanistically coupled to internal electron transfer. Here we have monitored translocation of electrical charge equivalents as well as electron transfer within cytochrome c oxidase in real time. The results show that electron transfer from haem a to the O2 reduction site initiates the proton pump mechanism by being kinetically linked to an internal vectorial proton transfer. This reaction drives the proton pump and occurs before relaxation steps in which protons are taken up from the aqueous space on one side of the membrane and released on the other.     

Three-dimensional structure of the bacterial protein-translocation complex SecYEG

Transport and membrane integration of polypeptides is carried out by specific protein complexes in the membranes of all living cells. The Sec transport path provides an essential and ubiquitous route for protein translocation. In the bacterial cytoplasmic membrane, the channel is formed by oligomers of a heterotrimeric membrane protein complex consisting of subunits SecY, SecE and SecG. In the endoplasmic reticulum membrane, the channel is formed from the related Sec61 complex. Here we report the structure of the Escherichia coli SecYEG assembly at an in-plane resolution of 8 A. The three-dimensional map, calculated from two-dimensional SecYEG crystals, reveals a sandwich of two membranes interacting through the extensive cytoplasmic domains. Each membrane is composed of dimers of SecYEG. The monomeric complex contains 15 transmembrane helices. In the centre of the dimer we observe a 16 x 25 A cavity closed on the periplasmic side by two highly tilted transmembrane helices. This may represent the closed state of the protein-conducting channel.     

Structure of acid-sensing ion channel 1 at 1.9 A resolution and low pH

Acid-sensing ion channels (ASICs) are voltage-independent, proton-activated receptors that belong to the epithelial sodium channel/degenerin family of ion channels and are implicated in perception of pain, ischaemic stroke, mechanosensation, learning and memory. Here we report the low-pH crystal structure of a chicken ASIC1 deletion mutant at 1.9 A resolution. Each subunit of the chalice-shaped homotrimer is composed of short amino and carboxy termini, two transmembrane helices, a bound chloride ion and a disulphide-rich, multidomain extracellular region enriched in acidic residues and carboxyl-carboxylate pairs within 3 A, suggesting that at least one carboxyl group bears a proton. Electrophysiological studies on aspartate-to-asparagine mutants confirm that these carboxyl-carboxylate pairs participate in proton sensing. Between the acidic residues and the transmembrane pore lies a disulphide-rich 'thumb' domain poised to couple the binding of protons to the opening of the ion channel, thus demonstrating that proton activation involves long-range conformational changes.     

The open pore conformation of potassium channels

Living cells regulate the activity of their ion channels through a process known as gating. To open the pore, protein conformational changes must occur within a channel's membrane-spanning ion pathway. KcsA and MthK, closed and opened K(+) channels, respectively, reveal how such gating transitions occur. Pore-lining 'inner' helices contain a 'gating hinge' that bends by approximately 30 degrees. In a straight conformation four inner helices form a bundle, closing the pore near its intracellular surface. In a bent configuration the inner helices splay open creating a wide (12 A) entryway. Amino-acid sequence conservation suggests a common structural basis for gating in a wide range of K(+) channels, both ligand- and voltage-gated. The open conformation favours high conduction by compressing the membrane field to the selectivity filter, and also permits large organic cations and inactivation peptides to enter the pore from the intracellular solution.     

Structure and function of a membrane component SecDF that enhances protein export

Protein translocation across the bacterial membrane, mediated by the secretory translocon SecYEG and the SecA ATPase, is enhanced by proton motive force and membrane-integrated SecDF, which associates with SecYEG. The role of SecDF has remained unclear, although it is proposed to function in later stages of translocation as well as in membrane protein biogenesis. Here, we determined the crystal structure of Thermus thermophilus SecDF at 3.3?? resolution, revealing a pseudo-symmetrical, 12-helix transmembrane domain belonging to the RND superfamily and two major periplasmic domains, P1 and P4. Higher-resolution analysis of the periplasmic domains suggested that P1, which binds an unfolded protein, undergoes functionally important conformational changes. In vitro analyses identified an ATP-independent step of protein translocation that requires both SecDF and proton motive force. Electrophysiological analyses revealed that SecDF conducts protons in a manner dependent on pH and the presence of an unfolded protein, with conserved Asp and Arg residues at the transmembrane interface between SecD and SecF playing essential roles in the movements of protons and preproteins. Therefore, we propose that SecDF functions as a membrane-integrated chaperone, powered by proton motive force, to achieve ATP-independent protein translocation.     

E. coli F1-ATPase interacts with a membrane protein component of a proton channel

The ATP synthases of bacteria, mitochondria and chloroplasts, which use the energy of a transmembrane proton gradient to power the synthesis of ATP, consist of an integral membrane component F0--thought to contain a proton channel--and a catalytic component, F1. To help investigate the way F0 and F1 are coupled, we have sequenced the b-subunit of the Escherichia coli F0, which seems to be the counterpart of a thermophilic bacteria F0 subunit thought to be essential for F1 binding. We report here that its sequence is remarkable, being hydrophobic around the N-terminus and highly charged in the remainder. We propose that the N-terminal segment lies in the membrane and the rest outside. The extramembranous section contains two adjacent stretches of 31 amino acids where the sequence is very similar: in the second of these stretches there is further internal homology. These duplicated stretches of the polypeptide probably fold into two alpha-helices which have many common features able to make contact with F1 subunits. Thus protein b occupies a central position in the enzyme, where it may be involved in proton translocation. It is possibly also important in biosynthetic assembly.     

Structural insights into electron transfer in caa3-type cytochrome oxidase

Cytochrome c oxidase is a member of the haem copper oxidase superfamily (HCO). HCOs function as the terminal enzymes in the respiratory chain of mitochondria and aerobic prokaryotes, coupling molecular oxygen reduction to transmembrane proton pumping. Integral to the enzyme's function is the transfer of electrons from cytochrome c to the oxidase via a transient association of the two proteins. Electron entry and exit are proposed to occur from the same site on cytochrome c. Here we report the crystal structure of the caa3-type cytochrome oxidase from Thermus thermophilus, which has a covalently tethered cytochrome c domain. Crystals were grown in a bicontinuous mesophase using a synthetic short-chain monoacylglycerol as the hosting lipid. From the electron density map, at 2.36?? resolution, a novel integral membrane subunit and a native glycoglycerophospholipid embedded in the complex were identified. Contrary to previous electron transfer mechanisms observed for soluble cytochrome c, the structure reveals the architecture of the electron transfer complex for the fused cupredoxin/cytochrome c domain, which implicates different sites on cytochrome c for electron entry and exit. Support for an alternative to the classical proton gate characteristic of this HCO class is presented.     

Mitochondrial uncoupling protein 2 structure determined by NMR molecular fragment searching

Mitochondrial uncoupling protein 2 (UCP2) is an integral membrane protein in the mitochondrial anion carrier protein family, the members of which facilitate the transport of small molecules across the mitochondrial inner membrane. When the mitochondrial respiratory complex pumps protons from the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space, it builds up an electrochemical potential. A fraction of this electrochemical potential is dissipated as heat, in a process involving leakage of protons back to the matrix. This leakage, or 'uncoupling' of the proton electrochemical potential, is mediated primarily by uncoupling proteins. However, the mechanism of UCP-mediated proton translocation across the lipid bilayer is unknown. Here we describe a solution-NMR method for structural characterization of UCP2. The method, which overcomes some of the challenges associated with membrane-protein structure determination, combines orientation restraints derived from NMR residual dipolar couplings (RDCs) and semiquantitative distance restraints from paramagnetic relaxation enhancement (PRE) measurements. The local and secondary structures of the protein were determined by piecing together molecular fragments from the Protein Data Bank that best fit experimental RDCs from samples weakly aligned in a DNA nanotube liquid crystal. The RDCs also determine the relative orientation of the secondary structural segments, and the PRE restraints provide their spatial arrangement in the tertiary fold. UCP2 closely resembles the bovine ADP/ATP carrier (the only carrier protein of known structure), but the relative orientations of the helical segments are different, resulting in a wider opening on the matrix side of the inner membrane. Moreover, the nitroxide-labelled GDP binds inside the channel and seems to be closer to transmembrane helices 1-4. We believe that this biophysical approach can be applied to other membrane proteins and, in particular, to other mitochondrial carriers, not only for structure determination but also to characterize various conformational states of these proteins linked to substrate transport.