Hox genes in brachiopods and priapulids and protostome evolution.

Understanding the early evolution of animal body plans requires knowledge both of metazoan phylogeny and of the genetic and developmental changes involved in the emergence of particular forms. Recent 18S ribosomal RNA phylogenies suggest a three-branched tree for the Bilateria comprising the deuterostomes and two great protostome clades, the lophotrochozoans and ecdysozoans. Here, we show that the complement of Hox genes in critical protostome phyla reflects these phylogenetic relationships and reveals the early evolution of developmental regulatory potential in bilaterians. We have identified Hox genes that are shared by subsets of protostome phyla. These include a diverged pair of posterior (Abdominal-B-like) genes in both a brachiopod and a polychaete annelid, which supports the lophotrochozoan assemblage, and a distinct posterior Hox gene shared by a priapulid, a nematode and the arthropods, which supports the ecdysozoan clade. The ancestors of each of these two major protostome lineages had a minimum of eight to ten Hox genes. The major period of Hox gene expansion and diversification thus occurred before the radiation of each of the three great bilaterian clades.     

The functions of animal microRNAs

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small RNAs that regulate the expression of complementary messenger RNAs. Hundreds of miRNA genes have been found in diverse animals, and many of these are phylogenetically conserved. With miRNA roles identified in developmental timing, cell death, cell proliferation, haematopoiesis and patterning of the nervous system, evidence is mounting that animal miRNAs are more numerous, and their regulatory impact more pervasive, than was previously suspected.     

Acoel development indicates the independent evolution of the bilaterian mouth and anus

Most bilaterian animals possess a through gut with a separate mouth and anus. It is commonly believed that during the transition from radial to bilateral symmetry, both openings evolved simultaneously by the lateral closure of a slit-like blastopore. Molecular phylogenies however, place the acoel flatworms, which have only one opening to their digestive system, as the sister group to all remaining Bilateria. To address how this single body opening is related to the mouth and anus of the protostomes and deuterostomes, we studied the expression of genes involved in bilaterian foregut and hindgut patterning during the development of the acoel Convolutriloba longifissura. Here we show that the genes brachyury and goosecoid are expressed in association with the acoel mouth, suggesting that this single opening is homologous to the mouth of other bilaterians. In addition, we find that the genes caudal, orthopedia and brachyury-which are expressed in various bilaterian hindguts-are expressed in a small region at the posterior end of the animal, separated from the anterior oral brachyury-expressing region by a dorsal domain of ectodermal bmp2/4 expression. These results contradict the hypothesis that the bilaterian mouth and anus evolved simultaneously from a common blastoporal opening, and suggest that a through gut might have evolved independently in different animal lineages.     

动物MicroRNAs的研究进展

MicroRNAs（miRNAs）是一类小的、内源的、非编码的RNA家族,其在转录后水平上对基因表达进行调控。nfiRNAs是在研究秀丽新小杆线虫（Caenorhabditis elegans）发育转变过程中发现的,最初称为stRNAs（small temporal RNA,小时序RNA）,但stRNAs只是miRNAs家族的一部分,随后在线虫、植物和哺乳动物中发现了miRNAs家族的数百个成员。动物miRNAs不仅在发育调控中起重要作用,还参与许多重要的生理过程。本文综述了动物中miRNAs的发现历程、生物学起源、作用机制、生物学功能、研究方法,并对动植物miRNAs的特点进行了比较。     

Advanced optics in a jellyfish eye

Cubozoans, or box jellyfish, differ from all other cnidarians by an active fish-like behaviour and an elaborate sensory apparatus. Each of the four sides of the animal carries a conspicuous sensory club (the rhopalium), which has evolved into a bizarre cluster of different eyes. Two of the eyes on each rhopalium have long been known to resemble eyes of higher animals, but the function and performance of these eyes have remained unknown. Here we show that box-jellyfish lenses contain a finely tuned refractive index gradient producing nearly aberration-free imaging. This demonstrates that even simple animals have been able to evolve the sophisticated visual optics previously known only from a few advanced bilaterian phyla. However, the position of the retina does not coincide with the sharp image, leading to very wide and complex receptive fields in individual photoreceptors. We argue that this may be useful in eyes serving a single visual task. The findings indicate that tailoring of complex receptive fields might have been one of the original driving forces in the evolution of animal lenses.     

Independent evolution of striated muscles in cnidarians and bilaterians

Striated muscles are present in bilaterian animals (for example, vertebrates, insects and annelids) and some non-bilaterian eumetazoans (that is, cnidarians and ctenophores). The considerable ultrastructural similarity of striated muscles between these animal groups is thought to reflect a common evolutionary origin. Here we show that a muscle protein core set, including a type II myosin heavy chain (MyHC) motor protein characteristic of striated muscles in vertebrates, was already present in unicellular organisms before the origin of multicellular animals. Furthermore, 'striated muscle' and 'non-muscle' myhc orthologues are expressed differentially in two sponges, compatible with a functional diversification before the origin of true muscles and the subsequent use of striated muscle MyHC in fast-contracting smooth and striated muscle. Cnidarians and ctenophores possess striated muscle myhc orthologues but lack crucial components of bilaterian striated muscles, such as genes that code for titin and the troponin complex, suggesting the convergent evolution of striated muscles. Consistently, jellyfish orthologues of a shared set of bilaterian Z-disc proteins are not associated with striated muscles, but are instead expressed elsewhere or ubiquitously. The independent evolution of eumetazoan striated muscles through the addition of new proteins to a pre-existing, ancestral contractile apparatus may serve as a model for the evolution of complex animal cell types.     

Noncoding RNAs: Different roles in tumorigenesis

A major portion of the mammalian genome is transcribed to produce large numbers of noncoding RNAs(ncRNAs).During the past decade,the discovery of small RNAs,including the microRNAs(miRNA) and small interfering RNAs(siRNA),has led to important advances in biology.The breadth of the ncRNA field of study has substantially expanded and many recent results have revealed a range of functions that can be attributed to the miRNAs and other ncRNAs.For example,H19 RNA,HOTAIR RNA,transcribed ultraconserved regions(T-UCRs),natural antisense RNA,transfer RNA and mitochondrial noncoding RNA have been suggested to play important roles in cancers and other diseases as well as in diverse cellular processes.In this review,we focus on the current status of several classes of ncRNAs associated with cancer with the emphasis on those that are not microRNAs.     

microRNA对肿瘤细胞增殖与分化的调控

microRNA(miRNA)是一种长度约为22核苷酸(nt)的非编码RNA,其主要通过碱基互补与靶mRNA的3'端非翻译区(3'UTR)结合,导致靶mRNA降解或抑制蛋白质的合成,在转录后水平调节基因的表达.miRNA突变、缺失或表达水平的异常会导致生理的异常与疾病的发生,与人类肿瘤疾病密切相关,它具有类似于癌基因或抑癌基因的作用,可参与肿瘤细胞的增殖、分化和细胞凋亡等调控过程.miRNA在肿瘤诊断和治疗方面具有广阔的应用前景.     

Acoelomorph flatworms are deuterostomes related to Xenoturbella

Xenoturbellida and Acoelomorpha are marine worms with contentious ancestry. Both were originally associated with the flatworms (Platyhelminthes), but molecular data have revised their phylogenetic positions, generally linking Xenoturbellida to the deuterostomes and positioning the Acoelomorpha as the most basally branching bilaterian group(s). Recent phylogenomic data suggested that Xenoturbellida and Acoelomorpha are sister taxa and together constitute an early branch of Bilateria. Here we assemble three independent data sets-mitochondrial genes, a phylogenomic data set of 38,330 amino-acid positions and new microRNA (miRNA) complements-and show that the position of Acoelomorpha is strongly affected by a long-branch attraction (LBA) artefact. When we minimize LBA we find consistent support for a position of both acoelomorphs and Xenoturbella within the deuterostomes. The most likely phylogeny links Xenoturbella and Acoelomorpha in a clade we call Xenacoelomorpha. The Xenacoelomorpha is the sister group of the Ambulacraria (hemichordates and echinoderms). We show that analyses of miRNA complements have been affected by character loss in the acoels and that both groups possess one miRNA and the gene Rsb66 otherwise specific to deuterostomes. In addition, Xenoturbella shares one miRNA with the ambulacrarians, and two with the acoels. This phylogeny makes sense of the shared characteristics of Xenoturbellida and Acoelomorpha, such as ciliary ultrastructure and diffuse nervous system, and implies the loss of various deuterostome characters in the Xenacoelomorpha including coelomic cavities, through gut and gill slits.     

A viral microRNA functions as an orthologue of cellular miR-155

All metazoan eukaryotes express microRNAs (miRNAs), roughly 22-nucleotide regulatory RNAs that can repress the expression of messenger RNAs bearing complementary sequences. Several DNA viruses also express miRNAs in infected cells, suggesting a role in viral replication and pathogenesis. Although specific viral miRNAs have been shown to autoregulate viral mRNAs or downregulate cellular mRNAs, the function of most viral miRNAs remains unknown. Here we report that the miR-K12-11 miRNA encoded by Kaposi's-sarcoma-associated herpes virus (KSHV) shows significant homology to cellular miR-155, including the entire miRNA 'seed' region. Using a range of assays, we show that expression of physiological levels of miR-K12-11 or miR-155 results in the downregulation of an extensive set of common mRNA targets, including genes with known roles in cell growth regulation. Our findings indicate that viral miR-K12-11 functions as an orthologue of cellular miR-155 and probably evolved to exploit a pre-existing gene regulatory pathway in B cells. Moreover, the known aetiological role of miR-155 in B-cell transformation suggests that miR-K12-11 may contribute to the induction of KSHV-positive B-cell tumours in infected patients.