MicroRNA control of Nodal signalling

MicroRNAs are crucial modulators of gene expression, yet their involvement as effectors of growth factor signalling is largely unknown. Ligands of the transforming growth factor-beta superfamily are essential for development and adult tissue homeostasis. In early Xenopus embryos, signalling by the transforming growth factor-beta ligand Nodal is crucial for the dorsal induction of the Spemann's organizer. Here we report that Xenopus laevis microRNAs miR-15 and miR-16 restrict the size of the organizer by targeting the Nodal type II receptor Acvr2a. Endogenous miR-15 and miR-16 are ventrally enriched as they are negatively regulated by the dorsal Wnt/beta-catenin pathway. These findings exemplify the relevance of microRNAs as regulators of early embryonic patterning acting at the crossroads of fundamental signalling cascades.     

The lipid phosphatase SHIP2 controls insulin sensitivity

Insulin is the primary hormone involved in glucose homeostasis, and impairment of insulin action and/or secretion has a critical role in the pathogenesis of diabetes mellitus. Type-II SH2-domain-containing inositol 5-phosphatase, or 'SHIP2', is a member of the inositol polyphosphate 5-phosphatase family. In vitro studies have shown that SHIP2, in response to stimulation by numerous growth factors and insulin, is closely linked to signalling events mediated by both phosphoinositide-3-OH kinase and Ras/mitogen-activated protein kinase. Here we report the generation of mice lacking the SHIP2 gene. Loss of SHIP2 leads to increased sensitivity to insulin, which is characterized by severe neonatal hypoglycaemia, deregulated expression of the genes involved in gluconeogenesis, and perinatal death. Adult mice that are heterozygous for the SHIP2 mutation have increased glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity associated with an increased recruitment of the GLUT4 glucose transporter and increased glycogen synthesis in skeletal muscles. Our results show that SHIP2 is a potent negative regulator of insulin signalling and insulin sensitivity in vivo.     

Hypoinsulinaemia, glucose intolerance and diminished beta-cell size in S6K1-deficient mice

Insulin controls glucose homeostasis by regulating glucose use in peripheral tissues, and its own production and secretion in pancreatic beta cells. These responses are largely mediated downstream of the insulin receptor substrates, IRS-1 and IRS-2 (refs 4-8), through distinct signalling pathways. Although a number of effectors of these pathways have been identified, their roles in mediating glucose homeostasis are poorly defined. Here we show that mice deficient for S6 kinase 1, an effector of the phosphatidylinositide-3-OH kinase signalling pathway, are hypoinsulinaemic and glucose intolerant. Whereas insulin resistance is not observed in isolated muscle, such mice exhibit a sharp reduction in glucose-induced insulin secretion and in pancreatic insulin content. This is not due to a lesion in glucose sensing or insulin production, but to a reduction in pancreatic endocrine mass, which is accounted for by a selective decrease in beta-cell size. The observed phenotype closely parallels those of preclinical type 2 diabetes mellitus, in which malnutrition-induced hypoinsulinaemia predisposes individuals to glucose intolerance.     

A pancreatic islet-specific microRNA regulates insulin secretion

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) constitute a growing class of non-coding RNAs that are thought to regulate gene expression by translational repression. Several miRNAs in animals exhibit tissue-specific or developmental-stage-specific expression, indicating that they could play important roles in many biological processes. To study the role of miRNAs in pancreatic endocrine cells we cloned and identified a novel, evolutionarily conserved and islet-specific miRNA (miR-375). Here we show that overexpression of miR-375 suppressed glucose-induced insulin secretion, and conversely, inhibition of endogenous miR-375 function enhanced insulin secretion. The mechanism by which secretion is modified by miR-375 is independent of changes in glucose metabolism or intracellular Ca2+-signalling but correlated with a direct effect on insulin exocytosis. Myotrophin (Mtpn) was predicted to be and validated as a target of miR-375. Inhibition of Mtpn by small interfering (si)RNA mimicked the effects of miR-375 on glucose-stimulated insulin secretion and exocytosis. Thus, miR-375 is a regulator of insulin secretion and may thereby constitute a novel pharmacological target for the treatment of diabetes.     

Small molecule activators of SIRT1 as therapeutics for the treatment of type 2 diabetes

Calorie restriction extends lifespan and produces a metabolic profile desirable for treating diseases of ageing such as type 2 diabetes. SIRT1, an NAD+-dependent deacetylase, is a principal modulator of pathways downstream of calorie restriction that produce beneficial effects on glucose homeostasis and insulin sensitivity. Resveratrol, a polyphenolic SIRT1 activator, mimics the anti-ageing effects of calorie restriction in lower organisms and in mice fed a high-fat diet ameliorates insulin resistance, increases mitochondrial content, and prolongs survival. Here we describe the identification and characterization of small molecule activators of SIRT1 that are structurally unrelated to, and 1,000-fold more potent than, resveratrol. These compounds bind to the SIRT1 enzyme-peptide substrate complex at an allosteric site amino-terminal to the catalytic domain and lower the Michaelis constant for acetylated substrates. In diet-induced obese and genetically obese mice, these compounds improve insulin sensitivity, lower plasma glucose, and increase mitochondrial capacity. In Zucker fa/fa rats, hyperinsulinaemic-euglycaemic clamp studies demonstrate that SIRT1 activators improve whole-body glucose homeostasis and insulin sensitivity in adipose tissue, skeletal muscle and liver. Thus, SIRT1 activation is a promising new therapeutic approach for treating diseases of ageing such as type 2 diabetes.     

Attenuation of FGF signalling in mouse beta-cells leads to diabetes

Fibroblast growth factor (FGF) signalling has been implicated in patterning, proliferation and cell differentiation in many organs, including the developing pancreas. Here we show that the FGF receptors (FGFRs) 1 and 2, together with the ligands FGF1, FGF2, FGF4, FGF5, FGF7 and FGF10, are expressed in adult mouse beta-cells, indicating that FGF signalling may have a role in differentiated beta-cells. When we perturbed signalling by expressing dominant-negative forms of the receptors, FGFR1c and FGFR2b, in the pancreas, we found that that mice with attenuated FGFR1c signalling, but not those with reduced FGFR2b signalling, develop diabetes with age and exhibit a decreased number of beta-cells, impaired expression of glucose transporter 2 and increased proinsulin content in beta-cells owing to impaired expression of prohormone convertases 1/3 and 2. These defects are all characteristic of patients with type-2 diabetes. Mutations in the homeobox gene Ipf1/Pdx1 are linked to diabetes in both mouse and human. We also show that Ipf1/Pdx1 is required for the expression of FGFR1 signalling components in beta-cells, indicating that Ipf1/Pdx1 acts upstream of FGFR1 signalling in beta-cells to maintain proper glucose sensing, insulin processing and glucose homeostasis.     

Absence of S6K1 protects against age- and diet-induced obesity while enhancing insulin sensitivity

Elucidating the signalling mechanisms by which obesity leads to impaired insulin action is critical in the development of therapeutic strategies for the treatment of diabetes. Recently, mice deficient for S6 Kinase 1 (S6K1), an effector of the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) that acts to integrate nutrient and insulin signals, were shown to be hypoinsulinaemic, glucose intolerant and have reduced beta-cell mass. However, S6K1-deficient mice maintain normal glucose levels during fasting, suggesting hypersensitivity to insulin, raising the question of their metabolic fate as a function of age and diet. Here, we report that S6K1-deficient mice are protected against obesity owing to enhanced beta-oxidation. However on a high fat diet, levels of glucose and free fatty acids still rise in S6K1-deficient mice, resulting in insulin receptor desensitization. Nevertheless, S6K1-deficient mice remain sensitive to insulin owing to the apparent loss of a negative feedback loop from S6K1 to insulin receptor substrate 1 (IRS1), which blunts S307 and S636/S639 phosphorylation; sites involved in insulin resistance. Moreover, wild-type mice on a high fat diet as well as K/K A(y) and ob/ob (also known as Lep/Lep) mice-two genetic models of obesity-have markedly elevated S6K1 activity and, unlike S6K1-deficient mice, increased phosphorylation of IRS1 S307 and S636/S639. Thus under conditions of nutrient satiation S6K1 negatively regulates insulin signalling.     

A central role for JNK in obesity and insulin resistance

Obesity is closely associated with insulin resistance and establishes the leading risk factor for type 2 diabetes mellitus, yet the molecular mechanisms of this association are poorly understood. The c-Jun amino-terminal kinases (JNKs) can interfere with insulin action in cultured cells and are activated by inflammatory cytokines and free fatty acids, molecules that have been implicated in the development of type 2 diabetes. Here we show that JNK activity is abnormally elevated in obesity. Furthermore, an absence of JNK1 results in decreased adiposity, significantly improved insulin sensitivity and enhanced insulin receptor signalling capacity in two different models of mouse obesity. Thus, JNK is a crucial mediator of obesity and insulin resistance and a potential target for therapeutics.     

CREB regulates hepatic gluconeogenesis through the coactivator PGC-1

When mammals fast, glucose homeostasis is achieved by triggering expression of gluconeogenic genes in response to glucagon and glucocorticoids. The pathways act synergistically to induce gluconeogenesis (glucose synthesis), although the underlying mechanism has not been determined. Here we show that mice carrying a targeted disruption of the cyclic AMP (cAMP) response element binding (CREB) protein gene, or overexpressing a dominant-negative CREB inhibitor, exhibit fasting hypoglycaemia [corrected] and reduced expression of gluconeogenic enzymes. CREB was found to induce expression of the gluconeogenic programme through the nuclear receptor coactivator PGC-1, which is shown here to be a direct target for CREB regulation in vivo. Overexpression of PGC-1 in CREB-deficient mice restored glucose homeostasis and rescued expression of gluconeogenic genes. In transient assays, PGC-1 potentiated glucocorticoid induction of the gene for phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK), the rate-limiting enzyme in gluconeogenesis. PGC-1 promotes cooperativity between cyclic AMP and glucocorticoid signalling pathways during hepatic gluconeogenesis. Fasting hyperglycaemia is strongly correlated with type II diabetes, so our results suggest that the activation of PGC-1 by CREB in liver contributes importantly to the pathogenesis of this disease.     

A nuclear-receptor-dependent phosphatidylcholine pathway with antidiabetic effects

Nuclear hormone receptors regulate diverse metabolic pathways and the orphan nuclear receptor LRH-1 (also known as NR5A2) regulates bile acid biosynthesis. Structural studies have identified phospholipids as potential LRH-1 ligands, but their functional relevance is unclear. Here we show that an unusual phosphatidylcholine species with two saturated 12 carbon fatty acid acyl side chains (dilauroyl phosphatidylcholine (DLPC)) is an LRH-1 agonist ligand in vitro. DLPC treatment induces bile acid biosynthetic enzymes in mouse liver, increases bile acid levels, and lowers hepatic triglycerides and serum glucose. DLPC treatment also decreases hepatic steatosis and improves glucose homeostasis in two mouse models of insulin resistance. Both the antidiabetic and lipotropic effects are lost in liver-specific Lrh-1 knockouts. These findings identify an LRH-1 dependent phosphatidylcholine signalling pathway that regulates bile acid metabolism and glucose homeostasis.     

Conserved mechanisms of glucose sensing and regulation by Drosophila corpora cardiaca cells

Antagonistic activities of glucagon and insulin control metabolism in mammals, and disruption of this balance underlies diabetes pathogenesis. Insulin-producing cells (IPCs) in the brain of insects such as Drosophila also regulate serum glucose, but it remains unclear whether insulin is the sole hormonal regulator of glucose homeostasis and whether mechanisms of glucose-sensing and response in IPCs resemble those in pancreatic islets. Here we show, by targeted cell ablation, that Drosophila corpora cardiaca (CC) cells of the ring gland are also essential for larval glucose homeostasis. Unlike IPCs, CC cells express Drosophila cognates of sulphonylurea receptor (Sur) and potassium channel (Ir), proteins that comprise ATP-sensitive potassium channels regulating hormone secretion by islets and other mammalian glucose-sensing cells. They also produce adipokinetic hormone, a polypeptide with glucagon-like functions. Glucose regulation by CC cells is impaired by exposure to sulphonylureas, drugs that target the Sur subunit. Furthermore, ubiquitous expression of an akh transgene reverses the effect of CC ablation on serum glucose. Thus, Drosophila CC cells are crucial regulators of glucose homeostasis and they use glucose-sensing and response mechanisms similar to islet cells.     

核受体Rev-erbs的能量稳态调控作用及其运动科学研究展望

 核受体Rev-erbs是能量稳态调控的核心转录调节因子,其表达受饮食、药物、运动等因素的影响;Rev-erbs参与糖脂代谢、胰岛素分泌、血糖稳态调节等多个生物学过程,是肥胖症、糖尿病等慢性代谢性疾病治疗的重要药物靶标,通过调节糖脂代谢通路中的靶分子,调控组织的能量稳态。运动干预刺激肝脏、骨骼肌等组织中Rev-erbs表达,调控糖脂代谢基因,维持细胞能量稳态,可能是慢性病运动干预的重要适应机制。简述了Rev-erbs的结构特点、表达调控因素与作用机制,分析了运动干预对Rev-erbs表达的影响与代谢调控机制,以及Rev-erbs在运动科学领域的国际前沿和发展趋势。     

Essential roles of PI(3)K-p110beta in cell growth, metabolism and tumorigenesis

On activation by receptors, the ubiquitously expressed class IA isoforms (p110alpha and p110beta) of phosphatidylinositol-3-OH kinase (PI(3)K) generate lipid second messengers, which initiate multiple signal transduction cascades. Recent studies have demonstrated specific functions for p110alpha in growth factor and insulin signalling. To probe for distinct functions of p110beta, we constructed conditional knockout mice. Here we show that ablation of p110beta in the livers of the resulting mice leads to impaired insulin sensitivity and glucose homeostasis, while having little effect on phosphorylation of Akt, suggesting the involvement of a kinase-independent role of p110beta in insulin metabolic action. Using established mouse embryonic fibroblasts, we found that removal of p110beta also had little effect on Akt phosphorylation in response to stimulation by insulin and epidermal growth factor, but resulted in retarded cell proliferation. Reconstitution of p110beta-null cells with a wild-type or kinase-dead allele of p110beta demonstrated that p110beta possesses kinase-independent functions in regulating cell proliferation and trafficking. However, the kinase activity of p110beta was required for G-protein-coupled receptor signalling triggered by lysophosphatidic acid and had a function in oncogenic transformation. Most strikingly, in an animal model of prostate tumour formation induced by Pten loss, ablation of p110beta (also known as Pik3cb), but not that of p110alpha (also known as Pik3ca), impeded tumorigenesis with a concomitant diminution of Akt phosphorylation. Taken together, our findings demonstrate both kinase-dependent and kinase-independent functions for p110beta, and strongly indicate the kinase-dependent functions of p110beta as a promising target in cancer therapy.     

MicroRNA及其靶基因在糖尿病肾病小鼠肾脏的表达

 验证与糖尿病肾病小鼠肾脏相关的microRNAs的表达并运用实时荧光定量PCR分析靶基因与糖尿病肾病的关系。以db/db小鼠为模型组（DN组）,db/m小鼠为正常组（NC组）,定期测量小鼠的体重、血糖、甘油三酯、总胆固醇及24 h尿蛋白排泄率。留取DN小鼠与NC小鼠肾脏组织,检测肾脏组织形态学染色及实时荧光定量PCR（qRT-PCR）。qRT-PCR验证差异表达的microRNAs及其靶基因的mRNA表达水平。血糖、24 h尿蛋白排泄率结果表明糖尿病肾病动物模型构建成功。与NC小鼠相比,DN小鼠肾脏miR-196a、miR-21、miR-200b表达明显升高,且差异有统计学意义（P<0.05）。miR-196a、miR-200b、miR-21的表达水平与血糖、甘油三酯、总胆固醇、24 h尿蛋白排泄率存在正相关关系（P<0.05）。利用miRNAs数据库预测miR-196a的靶基因有ANX1、HOXB7、PTEN、FOXO1、HOXB8、HOXA5等。与NC组比较,DN组ANX1、FOXO1的mRNA表达水平降低,且差异有统计学意义（P<0.05）。同时ANX1、FOXO1与24 h尿蛋白排泄率存在正相关（P<0.05）。MiR-196a可能通过调节ANX1、FOXO1的表达水平来参与糖尿病肾病的发生发展。     

Serum retinol binding protein 4 contributes to insulin resistance in obesity and type 2 diabetes

In obesity and type 2 diabetes, expression of the GLUT4 glucose transporter is decreased selectively in adipocytes. Adipose-specific Glut4 (also known as Slc2a4) knockout (adipose-Glut4(-/-)) mice show insulin resistance secondarily in muscle and liver. Here we show, using DNA arrays, that expression of retinol binding protein-4 (RBP4) is elevated in adipose tissue of adipose-Glut4(-/-) mice. We show that serum RBP4 levels are elevated in insulin-resistant mice and humans with obesity and type 2 diabetes. RBP4 levels are normalized by rosiglitazone, an insulin-sensitizing drug. Transgenic overexpression of human RBP4 or injection of recombinant RBP4 in normal mice causes insulin resistance. Conversely, genetic deletion of Rbp4 enhances insulin sensitivity. Fenretinide, a synthetic retinoid that increases urinary excretion of RBP4, normalizes serum RBP4 levels and improves insulin resistance and glucose intolerance in mice with obesity induced by a high-fat diet. Increasing serum RBP4 induces hepatic expression of the gluconeogenic enzyme phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK) and impairs insulin signalling in muscle. Thus, RBP4 is an adipocyte-derived 'signal' that may contribute to the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes. Lowering RBP4 could be a new strategy for treating type 2 diabetes.     

Adipose-selective targeting of the GLUT4 gene impairs insulin action in muscle and liver

The earliest defect in developing type 2 diabetes is insulin resistance, characterized by decreased glucose transport and metabolism in muscle and adipocytes. The glucose transporter GLUT4 mediates insulin-stimulated glucose uptake in adipocytes and muscle by rapidly moving from intracellular storage sites to the plasma membrane. In insulin-resistant states such as obesity and type 2 diabetes, GLUT4 expression is decreased in adipose tissue but preserved in muscle. Because skeletal muscle is the main site of insulin-stimulated glucose uptake, the role of adipose tissue GLUT4 downregulation in the pathogenesis of insulin resistance and diabetes is unclear. To determine the role of adipose GLUT4 in glucose homeostasis, we used Cre/loxP DNA recombination to generate mice with adipose-selective reduction of GLUT4 (G4A-/-). Here we show that these mice have normal growth and adipose mass despite markedly impaired insulin-stimulated glucose uptake in adipocytes. Although GLUT4 expression is preserved in muscle, these mice develop insulin resistance in muscle and liver, manifested by decreased biological responses and impaired activation of phosphoinositide-3-OH kinase. G4A-/- mice develop glucose intolerance and hyperinsulinaemia. Thus, downregulation of GLUT4 and glucose transport selectively in adipose tissue can cause insulin resistance and thereby increase the risk of developing diabetes.